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Conrady B, Dervic EH, Klimek P, Pedersen L, Reimert MM, Rasmussen P, Apenteng OO, Nielsen LR. Social network analysis reveals the failure of between-farm movement restrictions to reduce Salmonella transmission. J Dairy Sci 2024:S0022-0302(24)00816-6. [PMID: 38788850 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2023-24554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
An increasing number of countries are investigating options to stop the spread of the emerging zoonotic infection Salmonella (S.) Dublin, which mainly spreads among bovines and with cattle manure. Detailed surveillance and cattle movement data from an 11-year period in Denmark provided an opportunity to gain new knowledge for mitigation options through a combined social network and simulation modeling approach. The analysis revealed similar network trends for non-infected and infected cattle farms despite stringent cattle movement restrictions imposed on infected farms in the national control program. The strongest predictive factor for farms becoming infected was their cattle movement activities in the previous month, with twice the effect of local transmission. The simulation model indicated an endemic S. Dublin occurrence, with peaks in outbreak probabilities and sizes around observed cattle movement activities. Therefore, pre- and post-movement measures within a 1-mo time-window may help reduce S. Dublin spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Conrady
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Gr⊘nnegårdsvej 8, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark; Complexity Science Hub Vienna, Josefstädter Straße 39, 1080 Vienna, Austria.
| | - E H Dervic
- Complexity Science Hub Vienna, Josefstädter Straße 39, 1080 Vienna, Austria; Supply Chain Intelligence Institute Austria, Josefstädter Straße 39, 1080 Vienna, Austria
| | - P Klimek
- Complexity Science Hub Vienna, Josefstädter Straße 39, 1080 Vienna, Austria; Supply Chain Intelligence Institute Austria, Josefstädter Straße 39, 1080 Vienna, Austria; Section for Science of Complex Systems, Medical University of Vienna, Spitalgasse 23, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - L Pedersen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Gr⊘nnegårdsvej 8, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark; SEGES Innovation P/S, Skejby, Agro Food Park 15, 8200 Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - M Merhi Reimert
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Gr⊘nnegårdsvej 8, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - P Rasmussen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Gr⊘nnegårdsvej 8, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - O O Apenteng
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Gr⊘nnegårdsvej 8, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - L R Nielsen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Gr⊘nnegårdsvej 8, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
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Avalos A, Durand B, Naranjo J, Maldonado V, Canini L, Zanella G. Analysis of cattle movement networks in Paraguay: Implications for the spread and control of infectious diseases. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0278999. [PMID: 36534658 PMCID: PMC9762583 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0278999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Beef exports represent a substantial part of Paraguay's agricultural sector. Cattle movements involve a high risk due to the possible spread of bovine diseases that can have a significant impact on the country's economy. We analyzed cattle movements from 2014 to 2018 using the networks analysis methodology at the holding and district levels at different temporal scales. We built two types of networks to identify network characteristics that may contribute to the spread of two diseases with different epidemiological characteristics: i) a network including all cattle movements to consider the transmission of a disease of rapid spread like foot and mouth disease, and ii) a network including only cow movements to account for bovine brucellosis, a disease of slow spread that occurs mainly in adult females. Network indicators did not vary substantially among the cattle and cow only networks. The holdings/districts included in the largest strongly connected components were distributed throughout the country. Percolation analysis performed at the holding level showed that a large number of holdings should be removed to make the largest strongly connected component disappear. Higher values of the centrality indicators were found for markets than for farms, indicating that they may play an important role in the spread of an infectious disease. At the holding level (but not at the district level), the networks exhibited characteristics of small-world networks. This property may facilitate the spread of foot and mouth disease in case of re-emergence, or of bovine brucellosis in the country through cattle movements. They should be taken into account when implementing surveillance or control measures for these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amaias Avalos
- ANSES, Laboratory for Animal Health, Epidemiology Unit, Paris-Est University, Maisons-Alfort, France
- Faculté de Médecine, Université Paris-Saclay, Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
| | - Benoit Durand
- ANSES, Laboratory for Animal Health, Epidemiology Unit, Paris-Est University, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - José Naranjo
- National Animal Health and Quality Service (SENACSA) Consultant—Animal Health Services Foundation (FUNDASSA), Mariano Roque Alonso, Paraguay
| | - Victor Maldonado
- National Animal Health and Quality Service (SENACSA), General Directorate of Animal Health, Identity and Traceability, San Lorenzo, Paraguay
| | - Laetitia Canini
- ANSES, Laboratory for Animal Health, Epidemiology Unit, Paris-Est University, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Gina Zanella
- ANSES, Laboratory for Animal Health, Epidemiology Unit, Paris-Est University, Maisons-Alfort, France
- * E-mail:
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3
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Acosta AJ, Cespedes N, Pisuna LM, Galvis JO, Vinueza RL, Vasquez KS, Grisi-Filho JH, Amaku M, Gonçalves VS, Ferreira F. Network analysis of pig movements in Ecuador: Strengthening surveillance of classical swine fever. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022; 69:e2898-e2912. [PMID: 35737848 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The analysis of domestic pig movements has become useful to understand the disease spread patterns and epidemiology, which facilitates the development of more effective animal diseases control strategies. The aim of this work was to analyse the static and spatial characteristics of the pig network, to identify its trading communities and to study the contribution of the network to the transmission of classical swine fever. In this regard, we used the pig movement records from the National veterinary service of Ecuador (2017-2019), using social network analysis and spatial analysis to construct a network with registered premises as nodes and their movements as edges. Furthermore, we also created a network of parishes as its nodes by aggregating their premises movements as edges. The annual network metrics showed an average diameter of 20.33, a number of neighbours of 2.61, a shortest path length of 4.39 and a clustering coefficient of 0.38 (small-world structure). The most frequent movements were to or from markets (55%). Backyard producers made up 89% of the network premises, and the top 2% of parishes (highest degree) contributed to 50% of the movements. The highest frequencies of movements between parishes were in the centre of the country, while the highest frequency of movements to abattoirs was in the south-west. Finally, the pattern of CSF disease outbreaks within the Ecuador network was likely the result of network transmission processes. In conclusion, our results represented the first exploratory analysis of domestic pig movements at premise and parish levels. The surveillance system could consider these results to improve its procedures and update the disease control and management policy, and allow the implementation of targeted or risk-based surveillance. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfredo Javier Acosta
- Preventive Veterinary Medicine Department. School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Nicolas Cespedes
- Population Health and Pathobiology Department. College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, USA
| | - Luis Miguel Pisuna
- General coordination of animal health, Phytozoosanitary Regulation and Control Agency, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Jason Onell Galvis
- Population Health and Pathobiology Department. College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, USA
| | - Rommel Lenin Vinueza
- Veterinary Medicine School. College of health sciences, San Francisco de Quito University, Quito, Ecuador.,Social medicine and global challenges Institute. College of health sciences, San Francisco de Quito University, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Kleber Stalin Vasquez
- General coordination of animal health, Phytozoosanitary Regulation and Control Agency, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Jose Henrique Grisi-Filho
- Preventive Veterinary Medicine Department. School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcos Amaku
- Preventive Veterinary Medicine Department. School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Fernando Ferreira
- Preventive Veterinary Medicine Department. School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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Biemans F, Tratalos J, Arnoux S, Ramsbottom G, More SJ, Ezanno P. Modelling transmission of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis between Irish dairy cattle herds. Vet Res 2022; 53:45. [PMID: 35733232 PMCID: PMC9215035 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-022-01066-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine paratuberculosis is an endemic disease caused by Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (Map). Map is mainly transmitted between herds through movement of infected but undetected animals. Our objective was to investigate the effect of observed herd characteristics on Map spread on a national scale in Ireland. Herd characteristics included herd size, number of breeding bulls introduced, number of animals purchased and sold, and number of herds the focal herd purchases from and sells to. We used these characteristics to classify herds in accordance with their probability of becoming infected and of spreading infection to other herds. A stochastic individual-based model was used to represent herd demography and Map infection dynamics of each dairy cattle herd in Ireland. Data on herd size and composition, as well as birth, death, and culling events were used to characterize herd demography. Herds were connected with each other through observed animal trade movements. Data consisted of 13 353 herds, with 4 494 768 dairy female animals, and 72 991 breeding bulls. We showed that the probability of an infected animal being introduced into the herd increases both with an increasing number of animals that enter a herd via trade and number of herds from which animals are sourced. Herds that both buy and sell a lot of animals pose the highest infection risk to other herds and could therefore play an important role in Map spread between herds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Floor Biemans
- Centre for Veterinary Epidemiology and Risk Analysis, UCD School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, D04 W6F6, Ireland. .,INRAE, Oniris, BIOEPAR, 44300, Nantes, France.
| | - Jamie Tratalos
- Centre for Veterinary Epidemiology and Risk Analysis, UCD School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, D04 W6F6, Ireland
| | | | | | - Simon J More
- Centre for Veterinary Epidemiology and Risk Analysis, UCD School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, D04 W6F6, Ireland
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5
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Knific T, Ocepek M, Kirbiš A, Krt B, Prezelj J, Gethmann JM. Quantitative Risk Assessment of Exposure to Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) via Different Types of Milk for the Slovenian Consumer. Foods 2022; 11:foods11101472. [PMID: 35627042 PMCID: PMC9140596 DOI: 10.3390/foods11101472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to assess the risk of exposure to Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) via milk for the Slovenian consumer. MAP is suspected to be associated with several diseases in humans, therefore the risk of exposure should be better understood. The primary source of MAP for humans is thought to be cattle, in which MAP causes paratuberculosis or Johne’s disease. We developed a stochastic quantitative risk assessment model using Monte Carlo simulations. Considering the assumptions and uncertainties, we estimated the overall risk of exposure to MAP via milk to be low. For people consuming raw milk from MAP positive farms, the risk was high. On-farm pasteurisation reduced the risk considerably, but not completely. The risk of exposure via pasteurised retail milk was most likely insignificant. However, with a higher paratuberculosis prevalence the risk would also increase. Given the popularity of raw milk vending machines and homemade dairy products, this risk should not be ignored. To reduce the risk, consumers should heat raw milk before consumption. To prevent a potential public health scare and safeguard farmers’ livelihoods, a reduction in paratuberculosis prevalence should be sought. Our results show that culling clinically infected cows was insufficient to reduce milk contamination with MAP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Knific
- Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva ulica 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
- Correspondence:
| | - Matjaž Ocepek
- Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva ulica 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (M.O.); (B.K.)
| | - Andrej Kirbiš
- Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva ulica 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Branko Krt
- Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva ulica 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (M.O.); (B.K.)
| | - Jasna Prezelj
- Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, University of Ljubljana, Jadranska ulica 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
- Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Information Technologies, University of Primorska, Glagoljaška 8, 6000 Koper, Slovenia
- Institute of Mathematics, Physics and Mechanics, Jadranska ulica 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jörn M. Gethmann
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany;
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6
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Acosta A, Cardenas NC, Imbacuan C, Lentz HH, Dietze K, Amaku M, Burbano A, Gonçalves VS, Ferreira F. Modelling control strategies against Classical Swine Fever: influence of traders and markets using static and temporal networks in Ecuador. Prev Vet Med 2022; 205:105683. [DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2022.105683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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7
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Knific T, Kirbiš A, Gethmann JM, Prezelj J, Krt B, Ocepek M. Modeling Paratuberculosis Transmission in a Small Dairy Herd Typical of Slovenia Suggests That Different Models Should Be Used to Study Disease Spread in Herds of Different Sizes. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12091150. [PMID: 35565579 PMCID: PMC9105838 DOI: 10.3390/ani12091150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the possible dynamics of paratuberculosis or Johne’s disease in a typical Slovenian dairy herd of about 17 cows. Paratuberculosis is a worldwide endemic disease of cattle caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) and is associated with significant economic losses. We developed a stochastic compartmental model with two pathways of disease progression, infections of adult cows and infections of young animals through horizontal and vertical transmission, and transmission through animal movements. The average proportions of subclinically and clinically infected cows were 4% and 0.47%, respectively. The prevalence within the herd, which included latently infected animals, averaged 7.13% and ranged from 0% to 70.59%. Under the given circumstances, the results showed a relatively high rate of spontaneous elimination (0.22 per herd per year) of the disease and a high rate of reinfection (0.18 per herd per year) facilitated by active animal trade. To our knowledge, this stochastic compartmental model is the first to be developed specifically to represent a small dairy herd and could apply to other countries with a similar structure of dairy farms. The results suggest that different models should be used to study MAP spread in herds of various sizes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Knific
- Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva ulica 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
- Correspondence:
| | - Andrej Kirbiš
- Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva ulica 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Jörn M. Gethmann
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany;
| | - Jasna Prezelj
- Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, University of Ljubljana, Jadranska ulica 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
- Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Information Technologies, University of Primorska, Glagoljaška 8, 6000 Koper, Slovenia
- Institute of Mathematics, Physics and Mechanics, Jadranska ulica 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Branko Krt
- Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva ulica 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (B.K.); (M.O.)
| | - Matjaž Ocepek
- Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva ulica 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (B.K.); (M.O.)
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Cardenas NC, Sykes AL, Lopes FPN, Machado G. Multiple species animal movements: network properties, disease dynamics and the impact of targeted control actions. Vet Res 2022; 53:14. [PMID: 35193675 PMCID: PMC8862288 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-022-01031-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious diseases in livestock are well-known to infect multiple hosts and persist through a combination of within- and between-host transmission pathways. Uncertainty remains about the epidemic dynamics of diseases being introduced on farms with more than one susceptible host species. Here, we describe multi-host contact networks and elucidate the potential of disease spread through farms with multiple hosts. Four years of between-farm animal movement among all farms of a Brazilian state were described through a static and monthly snapshot of network representations. We developed a stochastic multilevel model to simulate scenarios in which infection was seeded into single host and multi-host farms to quantify disease spread potential, and simulate network-based control actions used to evaluate the reduction of secondarily infected farms. We showed that the swine network was more connected than cattle and small ruminants in both the static and monthly snapshots. The small ruminant network was highly fragmented, however, contributed to interconnecting farms, with other hosts acting as intermediaries throughout the networks. When a single host was initially infected, secondary infections were observed across farms with all other species. Our stochastic multi-host model demonstrated that targeting the top 3.25% of the farms ranked by degree reduced the number of secondarily infected farms. The results of the simulation highlight the importance of considering multi-host dynamics and contact networks while designing surveillance and preparedness control strategies against pathogens known to infect multiple species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas C Cardenas
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Abagael L Sykes
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Francisco P N Lopes
- Departamento de Defesa Agropecuária, Secretaria da Agricultura, Pecuária e Desenvolvimento Rural (SEAPDR), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Gustavo Machado
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA.
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A mechanistic model captures livestock trading, disease dynamics, and compensatory behaviour in response to control measures. J Theor Biol 2022; 539:111059. [PMID: 35181285 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2022.111059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Trade is a complex, multi-faceted process that can contribute to the spread and persistence of disease. We here develop novel mechanistic models of supply. Our model is framed within a livestock trading system, where farms form and end trade partnerships with rates dependent on current demand, with these trade partnerships facilitating trade between partners. With these time-varying, stock dependent partnership and trade dynamics, our trading model goes beyond current state of the art modelling approaches. By studying instantaneous shocks to farm-level supply and demand we show that behavioural responses of farms lead to trading systems that are highly resistant to shocks with only temporary disturbances to trade observed. Individual adaptation in response to permanent alterations to trading propensities, such that animal flows are maintained, illustrates the ability for farms to find new avenues of trade, minimising disruptions imposed by such alterations to trade that common modelling approaches cannot adequately capture. In the context of endemic disease control, we show that these adaptations hinder the potential beneficial reductions in prevalence suTrade is a complex, multi-faceted process that can contribute to the spread and persistence of disease. We here develop novel mechanistic models ofch changes to trading propensities have previously been shown to confer. Assessing the impact of a common disease control measure, post-movement batch testing, highlights the ability for our model to measure the stress on multiple components of trade imposed by such control measures and also highlights the temporary and, in some cases, the permanent disturbances to trade that post-movement testing has on the trading system.
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Quantifying changes in the British cattle movement network. Prev Vet Med 2021; 198:105524. [PMID: 34775127 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2021.105524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The modelling of disease spread is crucial to the farming industry and policy makers. In some of these industries, excellent data exist on animal movements, along with the networks that these movements create, and allow researchers to model spread of disease (both epidemic and endemic). The Cattle Tracing System is an online recording system for cattle births, deaths and between-herd movements in the United Kingdom and is an excellent resource for any researchers interested in networks or modelling infectious disease spread through the UK cattle system. Data exist that cover many years, and it can be useful to know how much change is occurring in a network, to help judge the merit of using historical data within a modelling context. This article uses the data to construct weighted directed monthly movement networks for two distinct periods of time, 2004-2006 and 2015-2017, to quantify by how much the underlying structure of the network has changed. Substantial changes in network structure may influence policy-makers directly or may influence models built upon the network data, and these in turn could impact policy-makers and their assessment of risk. We examined 13 network metrics, ranging from general descriptive metrics such as total number of nodes with movements and total movements, through to metrics to describe the network (e.g., Giant weakly and strongly connected components) and metrics calculated per node (betweenness, degree and strength). Mixed effect models show that there is a statistically significant effect of the period (2004-2006 vs 2015-2017) in the values of nine of the 13 network metrics. For example median total degree decreased by 19%. In addition to examining networks for two time periods, two updates of the data were examined to determine by how much the movement data stored for 2004-2006 had been cleansed between updates. Examination of these updates shows that there are small decreases in problem movements (such as animals leaving slaughterhouses) and therefore evidence of historical data being improved between updates. In combination with the significant effect of period on many of the network metrics, the modification of data between updates provides further evidence that the most recent available data should be used for network modelling. This will ensure that the most representative descriptions of the network are available to provide accurate modelling results to best inform policy makers.
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11
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Hodnik JJ, Knific T, Starič J, Toplak I, Ocepek M, Hostnik P, Ježek J. Overview of Slovenian Control Programmes for Cattle Diseases Not Regulated by the European Union. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:674515. [PMID: 34307524 PMCID: PMC8299482 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.674515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The European Union (EU) regulates the control of cattle diseases listed in categories A and B of the European Animal Health Law (AHL). However, no strict mandatory EU regulation exists for the control of other cattle diseases that are listed in categories C, D and E. Slovenia has five control programmes (CPs) for the latter cattle diseases: bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD), infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL), bluetongue and anthrax. Two (IBR and BVD) are voluntary and the others (EBL, anthrax and bluetongue) are compulsory. The three compulsory CPs are funded by the government. All the CPs are run by the government and laboratory tests are performed by the National Veterinary Institute. The rules for the CPs are laid down in Slovenian legislation. In addition, there is a national directive for the control of salmonellosis. Both BVD and IBR are endemic and have CPs based on increased biosecurity, testing and culling or vaccination, financed by the animal owners. Slovenia has been officially free of EBL since 2005 and carries out surveillance based on serological testing of a representative number of herds and inspection of carcasses at slaughter or necropsy. Vaccination is the main disease control measure for anthrax (sporadic) and bluetongue (currently perceived free—vaccination since 2017). Lack of motivation of farmers to participate in voluntary disease CPs and to implement and follow strict biosecurity measures are the most pressing issues in improving the health status of Slovenian cattle. An overview of the existing CPs and the circumstances leading to their implementation are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaka Jakob Hodnik
- Clinic for Reproduction and Large Animals-Section for Ruminants, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tanja Knific
- Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jože Starič
- Clinic for Reproduction and Large Animals-Section for Ruminants, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Ivan Toplak
- Department of Virology, Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Matjaž Ocepek
- National Veterinary Institute, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Peter Hostnik
- Department of Virology, Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jožica Ježek
- Clinic for Reproduction and Large Animals-Section for Ruminants, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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12
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Knight MA, White PCL, Hutchings MR, Davidson RS, Marion G. Generative models of network dynamics provide insight into the effects of trade on endemic livestock disease. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2021; 8:201715. [PMID: 33959334 PMCID: PMC8074963 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.201715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
We develop and apply analytically tractable generative models of livestock movements at national scale. These go beyond current models through mechanistic modelling of heterogeneous trade partnership network dynamics and the trade events that occur on them. Linking resulting animal movements to disease transmission between farms yields analytical expressions for the basic reproduction number R 0. We show how these novel modelling tools enable systems approaches to disease control, using R 0 to explore impacts of changes in trading practices on between-farm prevalence levels. Using the Scottish cattle trade network as a case study, we show our approach captures critical complexities of real-world trade networks at the national scale for a broad range of endemic diseases. Changes in trading patterns that minimize disruption to business by maintaining in-flow of animals for each individual farm reduce R 0, with the largest reductions for diseases that are most challenging to eradicate. Incentivizing high-risk farms to adopt such changes exploits 'scale-free' properties of the system and is likely to be particularly effective in reducing national livestock disease burden and incursion risk. Encouragingly, gains made by such targeted modification of trade practices scale much more favourably than comparably targeted improvements to more commonly adopted farm-level biosecurity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin A. Knight
- Department of Environment and Geography, University of York, Wentworth Way, York YO10 5NG, UK
- Biomathematics and Statistics Scotland, James Clerk Maxwell Building, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK
- Scotland's Rural College (SRUC), Peter Wilson Building, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
| | - Piran C. L. White
- Department of Environment and Geography, University of York, Wentworth Way, York YO10 5NG, UK
| | | | - Ross S. Davidson
- Biomathematics and Statistics Scotland, James Clerk Maxwell Building, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK
- Scotland's Rural College (SRUC), Peter Wilson Building, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
| | - Glenn Marion
- Biomathematics and Statistics Scotland, James Clerk Maxwell Building, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK
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Cardenas NC, VanderWaal K, Veloso FP, Galvis JOA, Amaku M, Grisi-Filho JHH. Spatio-temporal network analysis of pig trade to inform the design of risk-based disease surveillance. Prev Vet Med 2021; 189:105314. [PMID: 33689961 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2021.105314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Network analysis is a powerful tool to describe, estimate, and predict the role of pig trade in the spread of pathogens and generate essential patterns that can be used to understand, prevent, and mitigate possible outbreaks. This study aimed to describe the network between premises such as production herds, slaughterhouses, and traders of pig movements and identify heterogeneities in the connectivity of premises in the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil, using social network analysis (SNA). We used static and temporal network approaches to describe pig trade in the state by quantifying network attributes using SNA parameters, such as causal fidelity, loyalty, the proportion of node-loyalty, resilience of outgoing contact chains, and communities. Two indexes were implemented, the first one is a normalized index based on SNA-farm level measures and other index-based SNA-farm level measures considering the swineherd population size from all premises, both indexes were summarized by a municipality to target and rank surveillance activities. Within Santa Catarina, the southwest region played a key role in that 80 % of trade was concentrated in this region, and thus acted as a hub in the network. Besides, nine communities were found. The results also showed that premises were highly connected in the static network, with the network exhibiting low levels of fragmentation and loyalty. Also, just 11 % of the paths in the static network existed in the temporal network which accounted for the order in which edges occurred. Therefore, the use of time-respecting-paths was essential to not overestimate potential transmission pathways and outbreak sizes. Compared to static networks, the application of temporal network approaches was more suitable to capture the dynamics of pig trade and should be used to inform the design of riskbased disease surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Cespedes Cardenas
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Animal Health, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Kimberly VanderWaal
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, United States
| | | | - Jason Onell Ardila Galvis
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Animal Health, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcos Amaku
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Animal Health, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - José H H Grisi-Filho
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Animal Health, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Use of Network Analysis and Spread Models to Target Control Actions for Bovine Tuberculosis in a State from Brazil. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9020227. [PMID: 33499225 PMCID: PMC7912437 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9020227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 01/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Livestock movements create complex dynamic interactions among premises that can be represented, interpreted, and used for epidemiological purposes. These movements are a very important part of the production chain but may also contribute to the spread of infectious diseases through the transfer of infected animals over large distances. Social network analysis (SNA) can be used to characterize cattle trade patterns and to identify highly connected premises that may act as hubs in the movement network, which could be subjected to targeted control measures in order to reduce the transmission of communicable diseases such as bovine tuberculosis (TB). Here, we analyzed data on cattle movement and slaughterhouse surveillance for detection of TB-like lesions (TLL) over the 2016-2018 period in the state of Rio Grande do Sul (RS) in Brazil with the following aims: (i) to characterize cattle trade describing the static full, yearly, and monthly snapshots of the network contact trade, (ii) to identify clusters in the space and contact networks of premises from which animals with TLL originated, and (iii) to evaluate the potential of targeted control actions to decrease TB spread in the cattle population of RS using a stochastic metapopulation disease transmission model that simulated within-farm and between-farm disease spread. We found heterogeneous densities of premises and animals in the study area. The analysis of the contact network revealed a highly connected (~94%) trade network, with strong temporal trends, especially for May and November. The TLL cases were significantly clustered in space and in the contact network, suggesting the potential for both local (e.g., fence-to-fence) and movement-mediated TB transmission. According to the disease spread model, removing the top 7% connected farms based on degree and betweenness could reduce the total number of infected farms over three years by >50%. In conclusion, the characterization of the cattle network suggests that highly connected farms may play a role in TB dissemination, although being close to infected farms was also identified as a risk factor for having animals with TLL. Surveillance and control actions based on degree and betweenness could be useful to break the transmission cycle between premises in RS.
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Schirdewahn F, Lentz HHK, Colizza V, Koher A, Hövel P, Vidondo B. Early warning of infectious disease outbreaks on cattle-transport networks. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0244999. [PMID: 33406156 PMCID: PMC7787438 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0244999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Surveillance of infectious diseases in livestock is traditionally carried out at the farms, which are the typical units of epidemiological investigations and interventions. In Central and Western Europe, high-quality, long-term time series of animal transports have become available and this opens the possibility to new approaches like sentinel surveillance. By comparing a sentinel surveillance scheme based on markets to one based on farms, the primary aim of this paper is to identify the smallest set of sentinel holdings that would reliably and timely detect emergent disease outbreaks in Swiss cattle. Using a data-driven approach, we simulate the spread of infectious diseases according to the reported or available daily cattle transport data in Switzerland over a four year period. Investigating the efficiency of surveillance at either market or farm level, we find that the most efficient early warning surveillance system [the smallest set of sentinels that timely and reliably detect outbreaks (small outbreaks at detection, short detection delays)] would be based on the former, rather than the latter. We show that a detection probability of 86% can be achieved by monitoring all 137 markets in the network. Additional 250 farm sentinels—selected according to their risk—need to be placed under surveillance so that the probability of first hitting one of these farm sentinels is at least as high as the probability of first hitting a market. Combining all markets and 1000 farms with highest risk of infection, these two levels together will lead to a detection probability of 99%. We conclude that the design of animal surveillance systems greatly benefits from the use of the existing abundant and detailed animal transport data especially in the case of highly dynamic cattle transport networks. Sentinel surveillance approaches can be tailored to complement existing farm risk-based and syndromic surveillance approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederik Schirdewahn
- Institut für Theoretische Physik, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Hartmut H. K. Lentz
- Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Vittoria Colizza
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, Institut Pierre Louis d’épidémiologie et de Santé Publique, Paris, France
| | - Andreas Koher
- Institut für Theoretische Physik, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Philipp Hövel
- Institut für Theoretische Physik, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- School of Mathematical Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Beatriz Vidondo
- Veterinary Public Health Institute, University of Bern, Bern-Liebefeld, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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Brzoska L, Fischer M, Lentz HHK. Hierarchical Structures in Livestock Trade Networks-A Stochastic Block Model of the German Cattle Trade Network. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:281. [PMID: 32537461 PMCID: PMC7266987 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Trade of cattle between farms forms a complex trade network. We investigate partitions of this network for cattle trade in Germany. These partitions are groups of farms with similar properties and they are inferred directly from the trade pattern between farms. We make use of a rather new method known as stochastic block modeling (SBM) in order to divide the network into smaller units. SBM turns out to outperform the more established community detection method in the context of disease control in terms of trade restriction. Moreover, SBM is also superior to geographical based trade restrictions and could be a promising approach for disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Brzoska
- Institute of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany.,Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Mareike Fischer
- Institute of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Hartmut H K Lentz
- Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Greifswald, Germany
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