Claisen, Cope and Related Rearrangements in the Synthesis of Flavour and Fragrance Compounds

Gold-Catalyzed Arylative Cope Rearrangement

Cope rearrangements have garnered significant attention owing to their ability to undergo structural reorganization in stereoselective manner. While substantial advances have been achieved over decades, these rearrangements remained applicable exclusively to parent 1,5-hexadienes. Herein, we disclose the gold-catalyzed arylative Cope rearrangement of 1,6-heptadienes via a cyclization-induced [3,3]-rearrangement employing ligand-enabled gold redox catalysis. Detailed mechanistic investigations including several control experiments, cross-over experiment, HRMS analysis, 31P NMR and DFT studies have been performed to underpin the mechanism.

Exploring optimal Taxol® CYP725A4 activity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Background

CYP725A4 catalyses the conversion of the first Taxol® precursor, taxadiene, to taxadiene-5α-ol (T5α-ol) and a range of other mono- and di-hydroxylated side products (oxygenated taxanes). Initially known to undergo a radical rebound mechanism, the recent studies have revealed that an intermediate epoxide mediates the formation of the main characterised products of the enzyme, being T5α-ol, 5(12)-oxa-3(11)-cyclotaxane (OCT) and its isomer, 5(11)-oxa-3(11)-cyclotaxane (iso-OCT) as well as taxadienediols. Besides the high side product: main product ratio and the low main product titre, CYP725A4 is also known for its slow enzymatic activity, massively hindering further progress in heterologous production of Taxol® precursors. Therefore, this study aimed to systematically explore the key parameters for improving the regioselectivity and activity of eukaryotic CYP725A4 enzyme in a whole-cell eukaryotic biocatalyst, Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Results

Investigating the impact of CYP725A4 and reductase gene dosages along with construction of self-sufficient proteins with strong prokaryotic reductases showed that a potential uncoupling event accelerates the formation of oxygenated taxane products of this enzyme, particularly the side products OCT and iso-OCT. Due to the harmful effect of uncoupling products and the reactive metabolites on the enzyme, the impact of flavins and irons, existing as prosthetic groups in CYP725A4 and reductase, were examined in both their precursor and ready forms, and to investigate the changes in product distribution. We observed that the flavin adenine dinucleotide improved the diterpenoids titres and biomass accumulation. Hemin was found to decrease the titre of iso-OCT and T5α-ol, without impacting the side product OCT, suggesting the latter being the major product of CYP725A4. The interaction between this iron and the iron precursor, δ-Aminolevulinic acid, seemed to improve the production of these diterpenoids, further denoting that iso-OCT and T5α-ol were the later products. While no direct correlation between cellular-level oxidative stress and oxygenated taxanes was observed, investigating the impact of salt and antioxidant on CYP725A4 further showed the significant drop in OCT titre, highlighting the possibility of enzymatic-level uncoupling event and reactivity as the major mechanism behind the enzyme activity. To characterise the product spectrum and production capacity of CYP725A4 in the absence of cell growth, resting cell assays with optimal neutral pH revealed an array of novel diterpenoids along with higher quantities of characterised diterpenoids and independence of the oxygenated product spectra from the acidity effect. Besides reporting on the full product ranges of CYP725A4 in yeast for the first time, the highest total taxanes of around 361.4 ± 52.4 mg/L including 38.1 ± 8.4 mg/L of T5α-ol was produced herein at a small, 10-mL scale by resting cell assay, where the formation of some novel diterpenoids relied on the prior existence of other diterpenes/diterpenoids as shown by statistical analyses.

Conclusions

This study shows how rational strain engineering combined with an efficient design of experiment approach systematically uncovered the promoting effect of uncoupling for optimising the formation of the early oxygenated taxane precursors of Taxol®. The provided strategies can effectively accelerate the design of more efficient Taxol®-producing yeast strains.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12934-022-01922-1.

Seven Conformations of the Macrocycle Cyclododecanone Unveiled by Microwave Spectroscopy

The physicochemical properties and reactivity of macrocycles are critically shaped by their conformations. In this work, we have identified seven conformations of the macrocyclic ketone cyclododecanone using chirped-pulse Fourier transform microwave spectroscopy in combination with ab initio and density functional theory calculations. Cyclododecanone is strongly biased towards adopting a square configuration of the heavy atom framework featuring three C-C bonds per side. The substitution and effective structures of this conformation have been determined through the observation of its ¹³C isotopologues. The minimisation of transannular interactions and, to a lesser extent, HCCH eclipsed configurations drive conformational preferences. Our results contribute to a better understanding of the intrinsic forces mediating structural choices in macrocycles.

A comprehensive review of flow chemistry techniques tailored to the flavours and fragrances industries

Due to their intrinsic physical properties, which includes being able to perform as volatile liquids at room and biological temperatures, fragrance ingredients/intermediates make ideal candidates for continuous-flow manufacturing. This review highlights the potential crossover between a multibillion dollar industry and the flourishing sub-field of flow chemistry evolving within the discipline of organic synthesis. This is illustrated through selected examples of industrially important transformations specific to the fragrances and flavours industry and by highlighting the advantages of conducting these transformations by using a flow approach. This review is designed to be a compendium of techniques and apparatus already published in the chemical and engineering literature which would constitute a known solution or inspiration for commonly encountered procedures in the manufacture of fragrance and flavour chemicals.

Unexpected Rearrangement of N-Allyl-2-phenyl-4,5-Dihydrooxazole-4-Carboxamides to Construct Aza-Quaternary Carbon Centers

The unexpected rearrangement of N-allyl-2-phenyl-4,5-dihydrooxazole-4-carboxamides in the presence of LiHMDS has been found. The key features are: (1) the net reaction consisted of 1,3-migration of the N-allyl group, (2) the rearrangement produced a congested aza-quaternary carbon center, (3) both cyclic and acyclic substrates underwent the unexpected rearrangement to afford products in moderate to high yields, and (4) the reaction seemed to be highly stereoselective. In addition, a plausible mechanism has been discussed.

Unexpected C–N bond formation via Smiles rearrangement: one pot synthesis of N-arylated coumarin/pyran derivatives

A conceptually new and one-pot method for the synthesis of N-arylated coumarin/pyran derivatives via Smiles rearrangement.

Quantum chemical aspects of solvent effects on the Diels–Alder reaction of 2,3-dimethyl-1,3-butadiene and diethyl azodicarboxylate

A comprehensive theoretical study was performed regarding the solvent effect on the Diels–Alder reaction of 2,3-dimethyl-1,3-butadiene and the hetero-dienophile, diethyl azodicarboxylate. Reaction rates in the various solutions were studied using SCRF–DFT theory and good agreement with the experimental results was obtained. According to natural bond orbital analysis, it was confirmed that the stabilisation energy of the C–N bonds contributes to the strong interaction between the solvents and transition state (TS) structures. Topological analyses showed a linear correlation between the interaction energy and the sum of electron density at the bond critical point of C–N at the TS. Moreover, with an increase in the overall electron density of the C–N bond critical point, the vibrational frequencies were decreased. Finally, some correlations between the quantum reactivity indices and the rate constants in the presence of 23 solvents were investigated.

Versatility of tandem mass spectrometry for focused analysis of oxylipids

Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) scan mode has been the primary MS method applied for the target identification of specific and minor oxylipids in complex matrices, such as eicosanoids and docosanoids, which are potent lipid mediators derived from polyunsaturated fatty acid oxygenation. However, the high specificity of MRM can limit the detection of species with m/z MRM transitions not covered by the method. In addition to MRM, tandem-quadrupole mass analyzers enable other experiments to be conducted, by fragmenting ions via collision-induced dissociation process (CID). This paper presents the potential of tandem mass spectrometry for the focused analysis of oxylipids. We have successfully developed an LC-MS/MS method for the identification of precursor ions of m/z 115, a diagnostic product ion of 5-hydroxy- and 5-epoxy-fatty acids. As a proof of concept, the developed method was used to discover several oxylipids oxidized at C5 derived from arachidonic acid (C20 : 4) oxygenation in a hypothalamus rat extract that were not identified using the target MRM methodology. The proposed focused MS/MS-based approach in a tandem mass analyzer has proven to be a powerful strategy to accelerate the identification of oxylipids with structural similarities and assist the field of lipidomic research.

A novel oxy-oxonia(azonia)-cope reaction: serendipitous discovery and its application to the synthesis of macrocyclic musks

This brief review, including new experimental results, is the summary of a talk at the GDCh conference 'flavors & fragrances 2013' in Leipzig, Germany, 11th-13th September, 2013. Musk odorants are indispensable in perfumery to lend sensuality to fine fragrances, a nourishing effect to cosmetics, and a comforting feeling to laundry. We have recently found serendipitously a new oxy-oxonia-Cope rearrangement. In this account, we review the background of oxonia-sigmatropic rearrangements and the discovery of this novel reaction. Special attention is focused on the versatile lactone and lactam formation reactions via [n+4] ring enlargement and the macrocyclization in the synthesis of new macrocyclic musks. The synthesized structures provide new insights into the structure-odor relationships of musks.

A gold-catalysed enantioselective Cope rearrangement of achiral 1,5-dienes

Since the discovery of the Cope rearrangement in the 1940s, no asymmetric variant of the rearrangement of achiral 1,5-dienes has emerged, despite the successes that have been achieved with its heteroatom variants (Claisen, aza-Cope, and so on). This article reports the first example of an enantioselective Cope reaction that starts from an achiral diene. The new gold(I) catalyst derived from double Cl(-)-abstraction of ((S)-3,5-xylyl-PHANEPHOS(AuCl)(2)), has been developed for the sigmatropic rearrangement of alkenyl-methylenecyclopropanes. The reaction proceeds at low temperature and the synthetically useful vinylcyclopropane products are obtained in high yield and enantioselectivity. Density functional theory calculations predict that: (1) the reaction proceeds via a cyclic carbenium ion intermediate, (2) the relief of strain in the methylenecyclopropane moiety provides the thermodynamic driving force for the rearrangement and (3) metal complexation of the transition-state structure lowers the rearrangement barriers.

Synthesis of tetrahydroxy perhydroaza-azulenes: tandem Johnson–Claisen rearrangement ofd-glucose-derived allylic alcohols

The Johnson-Claisen rearrangement of D-glucose-derived allylic alcohols 5a,b, afforded sugar-substituted gamma,delta-unsaturated ester in high yield. Conversion of the ester group to an azidomethyl group, epoxidation of the double bond and hydrogenation gave pyrrolidine ring skeletons 13a and 13b, which were transformed to tetrahydroxy perhydroaza-azulenes 1a and 1b, respectively. Glycosidase inhibitory activity was also evaluated.

Biomimetic total synthesis of forbesione and desoxymorellin utilizing a tandem Claisen/Diels–Alder/Claisen rearrangement

A concise synthesis of forbesione (1) and desoxymorellin (3) is presented. Central to the strategy is a biomimetic Claisen/Diels-Alder/Claisen reaction cascade that proceeds in a regioselective manner and produces the desired scaffold exclusively. The observed regioselectivity and product distribution of the Claisen/Diels-Alder/Claisen reaction are attributed to the electronic effects of the xanthone oxygen (O10), the C9 carbonyl group and the nature of the C1 functionality.