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González-Barrio D, Carpio AJ, Preite L, Miguel-Vicedo M, Estévez-Reboredo RM, González-Viadero M, Barba-Sánchez R, Calero-Bernal R, Carmena D, Fuentes I. Toxoplasma gondii exposure in wildlife in Spain: Is there any predictable threat for humans and domestic animals? THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 935:173290. [PMID: 38782291 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic zoonosis of key importance in veterinary and public health. This article summarizes the available data (from 2000 to 2023) of exposition to Toxoplasma gondii in wildlife species in Spain based on a systematic bibliographic search, as well as further analysis of its potential relationship with environmental variables, biodiversity, anthropogenic impact on the habitat, and the reported human cases of toxoplasmosis. The overall seroprevalence of T. gondii in carnivorous mammals, birds, ungulate and lagomorph species in Spain was estimated at 69.3 %, 36.4 %, 18.4 %, and 16.2 %, respectively. Among the studies considered, great heterogeneity was observed both between and within taxonomic groups [Cohen's d > 0.8; X2 = 1039.10, df = 4 (p < 0.01) I2 = 97 %, r2 = 1.88, (p < 0.001)] and between and within bioregions [Cohen's d > 0.5; X2 = 368.59, df = 4 (p < 0.01)]. The results of a generalized linear model explaining T. gondii seroprevalence in wild animals suggest the influence of abiotic variables [wetland (p < 0.001), unvegetated (p < 0.001), isothermality (p < 0.001), and mean temperature during wettest quarter (p < 0.05)] and number of intermediate host species as positively associated with increased exposure of wildlife to T. gondii (p < 0.01). Toxoplasma gondii DNA was detected in both wild birds and wild mammals (range: 0.0-51.2 %) mainly from north-centre, northeast, and central-west of Spain. Regarding hospitalisation rates due to toxoplasmosis in humans, some abiotic variables [permanent crops (p < 0.05) and mean temperature during wettest quarter (p < 0.05)] showed a positive association. Despite certain limitations, this research evidences a substantial gap of knowledge on the implication of wildlife in the life cycle of T. gondii in Spain. This lack of knowledge is particularly evident in areas where the human-livestock-wildlife interface overlaps, preventing us from accurately determining its true distribution in different habitats, as well as its potential direct or indirect implications on public and veterinary health.
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Affiliation(s)
- David González-Barrio
- Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health In-stitute Carlos III, Majadahonda, Spain.
| | - Antonio J Carpio
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, IREC (UCLM-CSIC-JCCM), Ciudad Real, Spain; Department of Botany, Ecology and Plant Physiology, University of Cordoba, Campus de Rabanales, Cordoba, Spain.
| | - Ludovica Preite
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, IREC (UCLM-CSIC-JCCM), Ciudad Real, Spain.
| | - Mariola Miguel-Vicedo
- Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health In-stitute Carlos III, Majadahonda, Spain; PhD Programme in Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, IMIENS, National University of Distance Education (UNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Rosa M Estévez-Reboredo
- Epidemiological Surveillance Analysis Area, Spanish National Centre for Epidemiology, Health Institute Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
| | - María González-Viadero
- Epidemiological Surveillance Analysis Area, Spanish National Centre for Epidemiology, Health Institute Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Raquel Barba-Sánchez
- Epidemiological Surveillance Analysis Area, Spanish National Centre for Epidemiology, Health Institute Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; The National School of Public Health, Health Institute Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Rafael Calero-Bernal
- SALUVET, Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
| | - David Carmena
- Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health In-stitute Carlos III, Majadahonda, Spain; CIBER Infectious Diseases (CIBERINFEC), Health Institute Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Isabel Fuentes
- Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health In-stitute Carlos III, Majadahonda, Spain.
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Miguel-Vicedo M, Cabello P, Ortega-Navas MC, González-Barrio D, Fuentes I. Prevalence of Human Toxoplasmosis in Spain Throughout the Three Last Decades (1993-2023): A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. J Epidemiol Glob Health 2024:10.1007/s44197-024-00258-w. [PMID: 38864976 DOI: 10.1007/s44197-024-00258-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Humans are infected by Toxoplasma gondii worldwide and its consequences may seriously affect an immune deprived population such as HIV and transplanted patients or pregnant women and foetuses. A deep knowledge of toxoplasmosis seroprevalence in Spain is needed in order to better shape health policies and educational programs. We present the results of the first systematic review and meta-analysis on the human prevalence for this disease in Spain. Databases (PubMed, Web of Science, SCOPUS and Teseo) were searched for relevant studies that were published between January 1993 and December 2023 and all population-based cross-sectional and longitudinal studies reporting the human seroprevalence in Spain were revised. Within the population analysed, our targeted groups were immunocompetent population, pregnant women and immunocompromised patients. Among 572 studies and 35 doctoral theses retrieved, 15 studies and three doctoral theses were included in the meta-analysis. A random effects model was used for the meta-analyses due to the high heterogeneity found between studies (I2: 99.97), since it is a statistically conservative model, in addition to allowing better external validity. The global pooled seroprevalence was 32.3% (95% CI 28.7-36.2%). Most of the studies carried out were in pregnant women and the meta-analysis reported that the pooled seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in pregnant women in Spain was 24.4% (24,737/85,703, 95% CI 21.2-28.0%), based on the random effects model. It is recommended to continue monitoring the seroprevalence status of T. gondii in order to obtain essential guidelines for the prevention and control of the infection in the population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariola Miguel-Vicedo
- Toxoplasmosis and Protozoosis Unit, Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health Institute Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Educational Theory and Social Pedagogy, National University of Distance Education (UNED) Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Ph.D. Program in Biomedical Science and Public Health. IMIENS, National University of Distance Education (UNED) Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Paula Cabello
- International University of Valencia-VIU, 46002, Valencia, Spain
| | - M Carmen Ortega-Navas
- Department of Educational Theory and Social Pedagogy, National University of Distance Education (UNED) Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - David González-Barrio
- Toxoplasmosis and Protozoosis Unit, Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health Institute Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Isabel Fuentes
- Toxoplasmosis and Protozoosis Unit, Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health Institute Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain.
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Ávalos G, Caballero-Gómez J, Matas-Méndez P, Castro-Scholten S, Jiménez-Martín D, Köster PC, Santín M, Bailo B, Cano-Terriza D, González-Barrio D, Mateo M, García-Bocanegra I, Dashti A, Nájera F, Carmena D. Detection and genotyping of zoonotic microsporidia in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus). Med Mycol 2024; 62:myae027. [PMID: 38499442 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myae027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Microsporidia is a diverse group of obligate, intracellular, and spore-forming parasites that infect a wide range of animals. Among them, Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon spp. are the most frequently reported species in humans. Limited information is available about the presence and molecular diversity of microsporidian species in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus). Presence of Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon spp. was investigated by molecular methods in wild and captive Iberian lynxes from Spain. Overall, E. bieneusi was detected in 3.2% (8/251) of the animals examined. None of the samples tested were positive for Encephalitozoon spp. Four known (D, EbfelA, PigEBITS7, and Type IV) and a novel (named as LynxSpEb1) E. bieneusi genotypes were identified. All the genotypes found belonged to the zoonotic Group 1 of E. bieneusi. This study provides the first genotyping data of E. bieneusi in Iberian lynx in Spain. Our result indicate that the Iberian lynx does not seem to play a relevant role in the epidemiology of Encephalitozoon spp., and that this endangered felid is likely acting as spillover host rather than a true reservoir of E. bieneusi. Additional studies should be conducted to assess the impact of this parasite in the health status of the endangered Iberian lynx.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Ávalos
- Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health Institute Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Caballero-Gómez
- Department of Animal Health, Animal Health and Zoonosis Research Group (GISAZ), UIC Zoonoses and Emerging Diseases (ENZOEM), University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Maimonides Institute for Biomedical Research (IMIBIC), University Hospital Reina Sofía, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII - CIBER Infectious Diseases, Health Institute Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Pablo Matas-Méndez
- Faculty of Veterinary, Alfonso X El Sabio University (UAX), Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sabrina Castro-Scholten
- Department of Animal Health, Animal Health and Zoonosis Research Group (GISAZ), UIC Zoonoses and Emerging Diseases (ENZOEM), University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
| | - Débora Jiménez-Martín
- Department of Animal Health, Animal Health and Zoonosis Research Group (GISAZ), UIC Zoonoses and Emerging Diseases (ENZOEM), University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
| | - Pamela C Köster
- Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health Institute Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
- Women for Africa Foundation, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mónica Santín
- Environmental Microbial and Food Safety Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD, USA
| | - Begoña Bailo
- Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health Institute Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - David Cano-Terriza
- Department of Animal Health, Animal Health and Zoonosis Research Group (GISAZ), UIC Zoonoses and Emerging Diseases (ENZOEM), University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII - CIBER Infectious Diseases, Health Institute Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - David González-Barrio
- Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health Institute Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marta Mateo
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ignacio García-Bocanegra
- Department of Animal Health, Animal Health and Zoonosis Research Group (GISAZ), UIC Zoonoses and Emerging Diseases (ENZOEM), University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII - CIBER Infectious Diseases, Health Institute Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alejandro Dashti
- Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health Institute Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Fernando Nájera
- Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - David Carmena
- Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health Institute Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII - CIBER Infectious Diseases, Health Institute Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
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Castillo-Castillo JM, Rufino-Moya PJ, Martínez-Moreno Á, Salvador Castaño Á, Martínez-Moreno FJ, Leva RZ. Revealing the Prevalence of Toxoplasma in Sierra Morena's Wild Boar: An ELISA-Based Study Using Meat Juice. Pathogens 2024; 13:281. [PMID: 38668236 PMCID: PMC11053865 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13040281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 03/25/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
This research work focused on the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in wild boar from the Sierra Morena region. We conducted an ELISA analysis using meat juice samples. A total of 892 samples from six hunting seasons (2013-2019) were collected from the provinces that constitute the Sierra Morena Mountain range. These samples were analyzed using the Pigtype® ELISA kit, specifically developed for detecting T. gondii in meat juice. The overall prevalence of T. gondii in Sierra Morena was 23.2%. The highest prevalences were observed in Córdoba (31.6%) and Jaén (25.9%). These provinces exhibit the highest density of wild boar as well as the greatest presence of the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus). Further in-depth studies are necessary, but it appears that the presence of wild felids and scavenger behavior may be associated with this observation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Francisco Javier Martínez-Moreno
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal (Parasitología), Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Córdoba, Edificio de Sanidad Animal, Campus de Rabanales, Ctra. Madrid-Cádiz km 396, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; (J.M.C.-C.); (P.J.R.-M.); (Á.M.-M.); (Á.S.C.); (R.Z.L.)
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Matas-Méndez P, Ávalos G, Caballero-Gómez J, Dashti A, Castro-Scholten S, Jiménez-Martín D, González-Barrio D, Muñoz-de-Mier GJ, Bailo B, Cano-Terriza D, Mateo M, Nájera F, Xiao L, Köster PC, García-Bocanegra I, Carmena D. Detection and Molecular Diversity of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in the Endangered Iberian Lynx ( Lynx pardinus), Spain. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:340. [PMID: 38275800 PMCID: PMC10812403 DOI: 10.3390/ani14020340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis are the main non-viral causes of diarrhoea in humans and domestic animals globally. Comparatively, much less information is currently available in free-ranging carnivore species in general and in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) in particular. Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis were investigated with molecular (PCR and Sanger sequencing) methods in individual faecal DNA samples of free-ranging and captive Iberian lynxes from the main population nuclei in Spain. Overall, Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis were detected in 2.4% (6/251) and 27.9% (70/251) of the animals examined, respectively. Positive animals to at least one of them were detected in each of the analysed population nuclei. The analysis of partial ssu rRNA gene sequences revealed the presence of rodent-adapted C. alticolis (n = 1) and C. occultus (n = 1), leporid-adapted C. cuniculus (n = 2), and zoonotic C. parvum (n = 2) within Cryptosporidium, and zoonotic assemblages A (n = 5) and B (n = 3) within G. duodenalis. Subgenotyping analyses allowed for the identification of genotype VaA19 in C. cuniculus (gp60 locus) and sub-assemblages AI and BIII/BIV in G. duodenalis (gdh, bg, and tpi loci). This study represents the first molecular description of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis in the Iberian lynx in Spain. The presence of rodent/leporid-adapted Cryptosporidium species in the surveyed animals suggests spurious infections associated to the Iberian lynx's diet. The Iberian lynx seems a suitable host for zoonotic genetic variants of Cryptosporidium (C. parvum) and G. duodenalis (assemblages A and B), although the potential risk of human transmission is regarded as limited due to light parasite burdens and suspected low excretion of infective (oo)cysts to the environment by infected animals. More research should be conducted to ascertain the true impact of these protozoan parasites in the health status of the endangered Iberian lynx.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Matas-Méndez
- Faculty of Veterinary, Alfonso X El Sabio University (UAX), 28691 Villanueva de la Cañada, Spain;
| | - Gabriel Ávalos
- Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health Institute Carlos III, 28220 Majadahonda, Spain; (G.Á.); (A.D.); (D.G.-B.); (B.B.); (D.C.)
| | - Javier Caballero-Gómez
- Department of Animal Health, Animal Health and Zoonosis Research Group (GISAZ), UIC Zoonoses and Emerging Diseases (ENZOEM), University of Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; (S.C.-S.); (D.J.-M.); (D.C.-T.); (I.G.-B.)
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Maimonides Institute for Biomedical Research (IMIBIC), University Hospital Reina Sofía, University of Córdoba, 14004 Córdoba, Spain
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII—CIBER Infectious Diseases, Health Institute Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Alejandro Dashti
- Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health Institute Carlos III, 28220 Majadahonda, Spain; (G.Á.); (A.D.); (D.G.-B.); (B.B.); (D.C.)
| | - Sabrina Castro-Scholten
- Department of Animal Health, Animal Health and Zoonosis Research Group (GISAZ), UIC Zoonoses and Emerging Diseases (ENZOEM), University of Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; (S.C.-S.); (D.J.-M.); (D.C.-T.); (I.G.-B.)
| | - Débora Jiménez-Martín
- Department of Animal Health, Animal Health and Zoonosis Research Group (GISAZ), UIC Zoonoses and Emerging Diseases (ENZOEM), University of Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; (S.C.-S.); (D.J.-M.); (D.C.-T.); (I.G.-B.)
| | - David González-Barrio
- Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health Institute Carlos III, 28220 Majadahonda, Spain; (G.Á.); (A.D.); (D.G.-B.); (B.B.); (D.C.)
| | - Gemma J. Muñoz-de-Mier
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Alfonso X El Sabio University (UAX), 28691 Villanueva de la Cañada, Spain;
| | - Begoña Bailo
- Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health Institute Carlos III, 28220 Majadahonda, Spain; (G.Á.); (A.D.); (D.G.-B.); (B.B.); (D.C.)
| | - David Cano-Terriza
- Department of Animal Health, Animal Health and Zoonosis Research Group (GISAZ), UIC Zoonoses and Emerging Diseases (ENZOEM), University of Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; (S.C.-S.); (D.J.-M.); (D.C.-T.); (I.G.-B.)
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII—CIBER Infectious Diseases, Health Institute Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Marta Mateo
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Fernando Nájera
- Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA;
| | - Lihua Xiao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China;
| | - Pamela C. Köster
- Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health Institute Carlos III, 28220 Majadahonda, Spain; (G.Á.); (A.D.); (D.G.-B.); (B.B.); (D.C.)
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Alfonso X El Sabio University (UAX), 28691 Villanueva de la Cañada, Spain;
- Faculty of Medicine, Alfonso X El Sabio University (UAX), 28691 Villanueva de la Cañada, Spain
| | - Ignacio García-Bocanegra
- Department of Animal Health, Animal Health and Zoonosis Research Group (GISAZ), UIC Zoonoses and Emerging Diseases (ENZOEM), University of Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; (S.C.-S.); (D.J.-M.); (D.C.-T.); (I.G.-B.)
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII—CIBER Infectious Diseases, Health Institute Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - David Carmena
- Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Health Institute Carlos III, 28220 Majadahonda, Spain; (G.Á.); (A.D.); (D.G.-B.); (B.B.); (D.C.)
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII—CIBER Infectious Diseases, Health Institute Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
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Gonzálvez M, Paniagua J, Jiménez-Martín D, Cano-Terriza D, Castro-Scholten S, Barbero-Moyano J, Jiménez-Ruiz S, García-Bocanegra I. Monitoring the dynamics of consumption of ungulate game by-products in vulture feeding stations in Iberian Mediterranean ecosystems. Res Vet Sci 2023; 164:105026. [PMID: 37776609 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2023.105026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/02/2023]
Abstract
Vulture feeding stations (VFS) are strategic sites for the management of ungulate game by-products, with major implications for the conservation of obligate avian scavengers. These feeding points are designed to prevent access by facultative mammalian scavengers and to reduce the risk of trophically transmitted pathogen infection through scavenging behaviour. The aim of this study, using camera trap video recordings, was to evaluate the feeding dynamics around 32 lots of ungulate game by-products deposited in VFS in southern Spain. During the study period (2017-2022), 11 different avian and mammal scavenger species was detected. Also, many feeding events involving all scavenger species (51.1%; 362/709) and mammal scavenger species (23.4%; 166/709) was recorded. A significantly earlier presence of major obligate scavengers (Gyps fulvus and Aegypius monachus) (P = 0.023) and a lower persistence of by-products deposited (P < 0.001) were detected during October-December compared to January-March. Our results confirm that VFS play an important role in vulture conservation in Iberian Mediterranean ecosystems. However, we also point out the potential risk of VFS as hotspots of foodborne pathogens for mammal scavengers, particularly when the hunting offal persists longer. Consequently, we urge the competent authorities to update the regulations affecting VFS management, and hunting estate managers to make every effort to correctly apply those preventing scavenging mammals from gaining access to VFS. Further studies tackling access of non-target species to VFS are also warranted to properly assess the sanitary implications and geographical extent of these problems for mammal species inhabiting areas where VFS are installed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moisés Gonzálvez
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus de Excelencia Internacional Regional "Campus Mare Nostrum", Universidad de Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - Jorge Paniagua
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Débora Jiménez-Martín
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - David Cano-Terriza
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; CIBERINFEC, ISCIII CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Sabrina Castro-Scholten
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Jesús Barbero-Moyano
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Saúl Jiménez-Ruiz
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources & Associated Laboratory (CIBIO-InBIO), Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning (BIOPOLIS), University of Porto, Vairão 4485-661, Portugal.
| | - Ignacio García-Bocanegra
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; CIBERINFEC, ISCIII CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
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