Effects of Supplementation of Rumen Protected Fats on Rumen Ecology and Digestibility of Nutrients in Sheep

Biochemical properties of sheep colostrum and its potential benefits for lamb survival: a review

Colostrum is the initial secretion of the mammary glands following parturition, which offers main food, protection, and biological active substances for the new born. The most threatening episode of neonate's life is the initial two weeks after birth. This period is associated with high neonatal mortality and morbidity. These worthwhile losses lead to a poor prolificacy rate, low profitability, and ultimately poor performance in animal production. Hence, both diseases and mortality cause valuable losses in terms of production and economic losses. The survival of neonate is correlated with their immune status and passive immune transfer (PIT). Colostrum provides the primary source of nutrition and immunity (PIT) that protects neonates against infections. It must be given as soon as possible after birth since its immunoglobulins are absorbed within the first 16-27 hours after birth, ideally within 2-4 hours. As a result, immunoglobulin (PIT) is the most important component of distressing infectious immunity, and a passable concentration of immunoglobulin in the blood of newborn lambs is linked to their health and survival rate. In this review, we summarized the importance of colostrum in early life and its association with neonatal lamb's survival, profitability and productivity of sheep farming.

Effect of changing the proportion of C16:0 and cis-9 C18:1 in fat supplements on rumen fermentation, glucose and lipid metabolism, antioxidation capacity, and visceral fatty acid profile in finishing Angus bulls

This study evaluated the effects of different proportions of palmitic (C16:0) and oleic (cis-9 C18:1) acids in fat supplements on rumen fermentation, glucose (GLU) and lipid metabolism, antioxidant function, and visceral fat fatty acid (FA) composition in Angus bulls. The design of the experiment was a randomized block design with 3 treatments of 10 animals each. A total of 30 finishing Angus bulls (21 ± 0.5 months) with an initial body weight of 626 ± 69 kg were blocked by weight into 10 blocks, with 3 bulls per block. The bulls in each block were randomly assigned to one of three experimental diets: (1) control diet without additional fat (CON), (2) CON + 2.5% palmitic calcium salt (PA; 90% C16:0), (3) CON + 2.5% mixed FA calcium salts (MA; 60% C16:0 + 30% cis-9 C18:1). Both fat supplements increased C18:0 and cis-9 C18:1 in visceral fat (P < 0.05) and up-regulated the expression of liver FA transport protein 5 (FATP5; P < 0.001). PA increased the insulin concentration (P < 0.001) and aspartate aminotransferase activity (AST; P = 0.030) in bull's blood while reducing the GLU concentration (P = 0.009). PA increased the content of triglycerides (TG; P = 0.014) in the liver, the content of the C16:0 in visceral fat (P = 0.004), and weight gain (P = 0.032), and up-regulated the expression of liver diacylglycerol acyltransferase 2 (DGAT2; P < 0.001) and stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1; P < 0.05). MA increased plasma superoxide dismutase activity (SOD; P = 0.011), reduced the concentration of acetate and total volatile FA (VFA) in rumen fluid (P < 0.05), and tended to increase plasma non-esterified FA (NEFA; P = 0.069) concentrations. Generally, high C16:0 fat supplementation increased weight gain in Angus bulls and triggered the risk of fatty liver, insulin resistance, and reduced antioxidant function. These adverse effects were alleviated by partially replacing C16:0 with cis-9 C18:1.

The benefits of flushing with Lemuru fish oil as a source of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) on the performance of reproductive parameters in Garut ewes

This study aimed to evaluate and analyze the effects of a flushing diet containing Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) from Lemuru (Sardinella sp) fish oil on the reproductive performance parameters of Garut ewes. Forty (n = 40) primiparous Garut ewes aged 12-14 months with an average body weight of 28.92 ± 4.94 kg were assigned into four experimental treatment groups. The experimental diets contained roughage: concentrate (30:70%) designated as control concentrate (CNT), flushing concentrate with 6% palm oil (PO), flushing concentrate with 3% palm oil mixed with 3% lemuru oil as DHA and EPA sources (PFO), and flushing concentrate with the addition of 6% lemuru oil (FO). Treatment animals were fed two weeks before and after conception and parturition (8 weeks of total flushing treatment). The addition of fish oil at either 3% (PFO) or 6% (FO) resulted in significantly higher reproductive performance of ewes by increasing the litter size, as reflected by the birth of multiple kids (P < 0.05) compared to CNT and PO. Adding fish oil (PFO and FO) also maintains gestation, resulting in increased lamb yield, especially in the FO treatment, which yields the highest lamb yield (0% single lamb birth). The lamb male ratio was also higher with fish oil supplementation (PFO and PO) (P < 0.05). This research revealed a positive effect of 6% Lemuru oil on decreasing embryo loss and increasing the proportion of twin births. These findings thus support the hypothesis that ration flushing with double the required DHA and EPA from 6% Lemuru fish oil (FO) resulted in significantly higher reproductive performance in Garut sheep.

The Changes in Fecal Bacterial Communities in Goats Offered Rumen-Protected Fat

Leizhou goats are famous for their delicious meat but have inferior growth performance. There is little information on rumen-protected fat (RPF) from the Leizhou goat. Hence, we observed the effects of RPF on growth, fecal short-chain fatty acids, and bacteria community with respect to Leizhou goats. Twelve goats (13.34 ± 0.024 kg) were selected and assigned randomly to one of two treatments: (1) a control diet (CON) and (2) 2.4% RPF with a control diet (RPF). The final body weight and average daily gain (ADG) were greater (p < 0.05), and the dry matter intake (DMI): ADG was lower (p < 0.05) in the RPF group than in the CON group. There were no differences in DMI between the CON and RPF groups. The concentrations of total short-chain fatty acids, acetate, propionate, and butyrate were lower (p < 0.05) in the RPF group than in the CON group. The relative abundances of Ruminococcus, Rikenellaceae_RC9_gut_group, Treponema, norank_f__norank_o__RF39, Eubacterium_siraeum_group, and Ruminococcus_torques_group were lower (p < 0.05) in the RPF group than in the CON group. The relative abundances of Bacteroides, norank_f__norank_o__Clostridia_UCG-014, norank_f__Eubacterium_coprostanoligenes_group, Eubacterium_ruminantium_group, norank_f__Oscillospirale-UCG-010, Oscillospiraceae_UCG-002, and Family_XIII_AD3011_group were greater (p < 0.05) in the RPF group than in the CON group. It was concluded that RPF could improve the goats' growth performance by regulating their fecal bacteria communities.

Effects of extruded flaxseed and Salmate® inclusion in the diet on milk yield and composition, ruminal fermentation and degradation, and kinetic flow of digesta and fluid in lactating dairy cows in the subtropics

Background and Aim

Dietary supplements play pivotal roles in promoting productive and reproductive performance in ruminant animals. The aims of the present study were to evaluate the effects of extruded flaxseed and Salmate® (Ballard Group, Inc, OH, USA) inclusion in diets on milk yield and composition, ruminal degradation and fermentation, and flow of fluids and digesta in lactating cattle.

Materials and Methods

Six rumen-fistulated Holstein lactating cows were distributed to a 6 × 6 design of Latin square (L.S.). The groups were assorted into a control group fed a basal control diet and two treated groups fed diets containing extruded flaxseed (7.0%) or Salmate® (25 g/head/day). The basal control, extruded flaxseed, and Salmate® diets were formulated as isonitrogenous and isoenergetic. Each L.S. period of the group comprised 21 days, including 10 days for adaptation to the diet and 11 days for data sampling and recording.

Results

Feed intake did not differ among the control, extruded flaxseed, and Salmate® groups. Milk yield (kg) and protein and fat composition (%) were improved on feeding the extruded flaxseed diet compared with the Salmate® and control diets. Extruded flaxseed or Salmate® diet had no effect on the values of ruminal pH, ammonia, and volatile fatty acids except isobutyrate, which decreased in the Salmate® group. Degradable efficiency and ruminal digestibility were significantly decreased with the inclusion of extruded flaxseed and/or Salmate® in the diets. The extruded flaxseed and Salmate® groups had a greater digesta passage rate than the control group. The extruded flaxseed and control groups had a greater liquid passage rate than the Salmate® group.

Conclusion

The inclusion of extruded flaxseed in the diet improved (p < 0.05) milk yield, milk composition, and milk Omega-6: Omega-3 ratio with no changes in ruminal fermentation, notable negative effects on degradable efficiency and ruminal digestibility.

Effects of dietary Clostridium butyricum and rumen protected fat on meat quality, oxidative stability, and chemical composition of finishing goats

BACKGROUND

Clostridium butyricum (CB) is a probiotic that can regulate intestinal microbial composition and improve meat quality. Rumen protected fat (RPF) has been shown to increase the dietary energy density and provide essential fatty acids. However, it is still unknown whether dietary supplementation with CB and RPF exerts beneficial effects on growth performance and nutritional value of goat meat. This study aimed to investigate the effects of dietary CB and RPF supplementation on growth performance, meat quality, oxidative stability, and meat nutritional value of finishing goats. Thirty-two goats (initial body weight, 20.5 ± 0.82 kg) were used in a completely randomized block design with a 2 RPF supplementation (0 vs. 30 g/d) × 2 CB supplementation (0 vs. 1.0 g/d) factorial treatment arrangement. The experiment included a 14-d adaptation and 70-d data and sample collection period. The goats were fed a diet consisted of 400 g/kg peanut seedling and 600 g/kg corn-based concentrate (dry matter basis).

RESULT

Interaction between CB and RPF was rarely observed on the variables measured, except that shear force was reduced (P < 0.05) by adding CB or RPF alone or their combination; the increased intramuscular fat (IMF) content with adding RPF was more pronounced (P < 0.05) with CB than without CB addition. The pH24h (P = 0.009), a* values (P = 0.007), total antioxidant capacity (P = 0.050), glutathione peroxidase activities (P = 0.006), concentrations of 18:3 (P < 0.001), 20:5 (P = 0.003) and total polyunsaturated fatty acids (P = 0.048) were increased, whereas the L* values (P < 0.001), shear force (P = 0.050) and malondialdehyde content (P = 0.044) were decreased by adding CB. Furthermore, CB supplementation increased essential amino acid (P = 0.027), flavor amino acid (P = 0.010) and total amino acid contents (P = 0.024) as well as upregulated the expression of lipoprotein lipase (P = 0.034) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) (P = 0.012), and downregulated the expression of stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD) (P = 0.034). The RPF supplementation increased dry matter intake (P = 0.005), averaged daily gain (trend, P = 0.058), hot carcass weight (P = 0.046), backfat thickness (P = 0.006), concentrations of 16:0 (P < 0.001) and c9-18:1 (P = 0.002), and decreased the shear force (P < 0.001), isoleucine (P = 0.049) and lysine content (P = 0.003) of meat. In addition, the expressions of acetyl-CoA carboxylase (P = 0.003), fatty acid synthase (P = 0.038), SCD (P < 0.001) and PPARγ (P = 0.022) were upregulated due to RPF supplementation, resulting in higher (P < 0.001) content of IMF.

CONCLUSIONS

CB and RPF could be fed to goats for improving the growth performance, carcass traits and meat quality, and promote fat deposition by upregulating the expression of lipogenic genes of Longissimus thoracis muscle.

Estimation of genetic correlations of two key feed efficiency traits with production traits in male Hu sheep

Increased body growth and feed efficiency are important for breeding due to expensive feed costs. This study estimated the genetic parameters for two feed efficiency traits [the feed conversion ratio (FCR) and the residual feed intake (RFI)] and other important economic traits in male Hu sheep using 1642 male Hu lambs. The heritability of the RFI was estimated at 0.31 (±0.10)-0.54 (±0.1) and the heritability of the FCR was 0.05 (±0.07)-0.77 (±0.12). There was a negative genetic correlation between rib-eye muscle area traits and RFI. A positive genetic correlation was found between fat deposition traits and feed efficiency traits. The digestive tract weight decreased with the direction of RFI: however, the FCR showed the opposite: A low FCR was accompanied by a high digestive tract weight. The genetic correlation between feed efficiency (RFI and FCR) and rumen weight was negative. Heritability estimates for feed efficiency generate fluctuations with different experimental intervals. The weight of other traits should be reasonably allocated to avoid losses in production and feed efficiency in the selection of feed efficiency traits. The present study added to our understanding of the genetic parameters of sheep under the condition of house feeding.

Partial replacement of corn with chocolate byproducts or protected fat in diets of early lactating Holstein cows: feed utilization and lactational performance

This study determined the effects of the partial replacement of corn with chocolate byproducts or protected fat on the performance of cows. Forty multiparous Holstein cows were assigned to four treatments in a completely randomized design for 90 d. The control diet was a complete diet containing 41.2% concentrate feed mixture, 41.2% corn silage, and 17.6% berseem hay. In the other experimental diets, each kg of crushed corn grain in the control diet (DM basis) was replaced with 600 g chocolate byproducts (CH), 400 g protected fat (PF), or 500 g of a mixture of chocolate byproducts and protected fat (1:1 DM basis) (CHPF). Both amounts of PF and CH had the same energy concentration as 1 kg of corn. The experimental treatments did not affect total intake; however, they increased (p < 0.001) daily production of milk, milk fat content, and feed efficiency. Moreover, treatments increased (p < 0.05) blood total protein, albumin, glucose, cholesterol, and triglyceride. The CH, PF, and CHPF treatments increased (p < 0.01) nutrient digestibility. It is concluded that replacing 1 kg of corn in the diet of lactating Holstein cows with PF at 400 g, followed by CHPF at 500 g, and CH at 600 g enhanced milk production and feed efficiency.

N-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids as a Nutritional Support of the Reproductive and Immune System of Cattle-A Review

This paper focuses on the role of n-3 fatty acids as a nutrient crucial to the proper functioning of reproductive and immune systems in cattle. Emphasis was placed on the connection between maternal and offspring immunity. The summarized results confirm the importance and beneficial effect of n-3 family fatty acids on ruminant organisms. Meanwhile, dietary n-3 fatty acids supplementation, especially during the critical first week for dairy cows experiencing their peripartum period, in general, is expected to enhance reproductive performance, and the impact of its supplementation appears to be dependent on body condition scores of cows during the drying period, the severity of the negative energy balance, and the amount of fat in the basic feed ration. An unbalanced, insufficient, or excessive fatty acid supplementation of cows' diets in the early stages of pregnancy (during fetus development) may affect both the metabolic and nutritional programming of the offspring. The presence of the polyunsaturated fatty acids of the n-3 family in the calves' ration affects not only the performance of calves but also the immune response, antioxidant status, and overall metabolism of the future adult cow.

High-fat diet during pregnancy promotes fetal skeletal muscle fatty acid oxidation and insulin resistance in an ovine model

Maternal diet during pregnancy is associated with offspring metabolic risk trajectory in humans and animal models, but the prenatal origins of these effects are less clear. We examined the effects of a high-fat diet (HFD) during pregnancy on fetal skeletal muscle metabolism and metabolic risk parameters using an ovine model. White-faced ewes were fed a standardized diet containing 5% fat wt/wt (CON), or the same diet supplemented with 6% rumen-protected fats (11% total fat wt/wt; HFD) beginning 2 wk before mating until midgestation (GD75). Maternal HFD increased maternal weight gain, fetal body weight, and low-density lipoprotein levels in the uterine and umbilical circulation but had no significant effects on circulating glucose, triglycerides, or placental fatty acid transporters. Fatty acid (palmitoylcarnitine) oxidation capacity of permeabilized hindlimb muscle fibers was >50% higher in fetuses from HFD pregnancies, whereas pyruvate and maximal (mixed substrate) oxidation capacities were similar to CON. This corresponded to greater triacylglycerol content and protein expression of fatty acid transport and oxidation enzymes in fetal muscle but no significant effect on respiratory chain complexes or pyruvate dehydrogenase expression. However, serine-308 phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 was greater in fetal muscle from HFD pregnancies along with c-jun-NH2 terminal kinase activation, consistent with prenatal inhibition of skeletal muscle insulin signaling. These results indicate that maternal high-fat feeding shifts fetal skeletal muscle metabolism toward a greater capacity for fatty acid over glucose utilization and favors prenatal development of insulin resistance, which may predispose offspring to metabolic syndrome later in life.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Maternal diet during pregnancy is associated with offspring metabolic risk trajectory in humans and animal models, but the prenatal origins of these effects are less clear. This study examined the effects of a high-fat diet during pregnancy on metabolic risk parameters using a new sheep model. Results align with findings previously reported in nonhuman primates, demonstrating changes in fetal skeletal muscle metabolism that may predispose offspring to metabolic syndrome later in life.

Production, characterization, and dietary supplementation effect of rumen-protected fat on ruminal function and blood parameters of sheep

Rumen-protected fat (RPF) was produced in the 1st experimental stage through melt-emulsification technique using buriti oil (BO) as core, at concentrations of 10% (BO10), 20% (BO20), and 30% (BO30) (w/w), and carnauba wax (CW) as encapsulant material. After obtention and characterization, protected fat microspheres were tested in a 2nd experimental stage on the sheep' diet using six castrated 2-year-old male Santa Ines with initial weight 48.9 ± 5.23 kg, fistulated in rumen and distributed in a double Latin square design with 3 treatments × 3 periods, to evaluate rumen pH, temperature, protozoal count, and blood parameters. There was no difference (P > 0.05) among RPF microspheres for microencapsulation yield. However, microencapsulation efficiency increased (P < 0.05) with BO addition ranging from 36 to 61.3% for BO10 and BO30, respectively. The inclusion of BO10 in the sheep's diet did not affect the ruminal dry matter degradability (DMD) of BO over time (P > 0.05); however, BO20 and BO30 had higher (P < 0.05) DMD values than BO10. No significant differences were observed among RPF for rumen pH and temperature (P > 0.05). There was an increase (P < 0.05) in the protozoal population in the rumen environment due to the microencapsulated BO30 inclusion. There was also increase (P < 0.05) in serum albumin, cholesterol, aspartate aminotransferase (ALT), and gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT), and a reduction (P < 0.05) in serum triglycerides of the sheep when RPF microspheres increased in the diet. Melt-emulsification proved to be a good technique for microencapsulation of buriti oil into the carnauba wax matrix. RPF from buriti oil protected into carnauba wax is recommended for sheep diet because it increases energy density, without adverse effects on the protozoal populations and blood serum metabolites from the bypass effect in the rumen.

Chocolate byproducts and protected fats enriched with chromium to replace corn in diets of early lactation Holstein cows: feed utilization, blood profile, and lactational performance

The present experiment aimed to evaluate the partial replacement of corn with chocolate byproducts or protected fats in the diet of lactating cows on feed utilization, blood profile and lactation performance. Fifty multiparous Holstein cows (560±22 kg BW, 3±1 parity, 7±1 days in milk, and previous milk production of 34±3 kg/d), were randomly assigned to 5 treatments in a completely randomized design for 90 days. The control diet contained a concentrate feed mixture containing (per kg DM 412 g concentrate feed mixture, 412 g corn silage, and 176 g berseem hay). The control diet contained 17.6% crushed corn (DM basis). In another treatment, the control diet was supplemented with 1 g chromium daily (Chromium diet). In the other diets, each kg of crushed corn grain was replaced with 600 g chocolate byproducts (CH diet), 400 g protected fats (PF diet), or 500 g of chocolate byproducts and protected fats mixture (1:1 DM basis) (CHPF diet), DM basis, and each of the diets was also supplemented with 1 g chromium daily. Both amounts of protected fats and chocolate byproducts had the same energy concentration as 1 kg of corn. Without affecting feed intake, the replacement increased (P<0.01) milk production, milk fat concentration, and feed efficiency. The replacement (P<0.05) increased the concentrations of serum total proteins, albumin, glucose, cholesterol, triglyceride, and chromium in comparison with the control diet. Higher (P<0.001) nutrient digestibility was observed with CH, PF, and CHPF treatments. It is concluded that chromium supplementation did not affect feed utilization or cows performance; however, partial replacement of corn with chromium supplemented protected fat, chocolate byproducts or their mixture improved milk production and feed efficiency.

The enrichment of chocolate byproducts and protected fats with zinc to partially replace corn in diets of early lactation Holstein cows

The present experiment aimed to evaluate the effect of partial replacement of corn with chocolate byproducts, protected fats, or their mixture supplemented with zinc in the diet of lactating cows on feed utilization and lactation performance for 90 days. Fifty multiparous Holstein cows (565±25 kg BW, 3±1 parity, 7±1 days in milk, a previous milk production of 35±2.9 kg/d), were randomly assigned to 5 treatments in a completely randomized design. The control diet contained (per kg DM): 412 g concentrate feed mixture, 412 g corn silage, and 176 g berseem hay. The control diet was supplemented with 1 g of zinc daily (Zinc diet). In the other diets, each kg of crushed corn grain was replaced with (DM basis) 600 g chocolate byproducts (CH diet), 400 g protected fats (PF diet), or 500 g of chocolate byproducts and protected fats mixture (1:1 DM basis) (CHPF diet). Both amounts of protected fats and chocolate byproducts had the same energy concentration as 1 kg of corn. The total mixed ration was prepared and distributed using a horizontal mixer system after mixing for 20 min. Chemical analysis showed that the replacement minimally affected the composition of the total mixed rations. Additionally, treatments did not affect feed intake. Compared to the control treatment, the zinc treatment did not affect milk production, milk composition, or feed efficiency. Increased (P<0.05) daily production of milk and component yields, and feed efficiency as well as fat concentration were observed by the CH, PF and CHPF treatments. Without affecting other measured blood parameters or hematocrit, treatments increased (P<0.05) the concentrations of total proteins, albumin, glucose, cholesterol, triglyceride, and zinc in the blood of cows. Additionally, the CH, PF and CHPF treatments increased (P<0.01) the digestibility of nutrients compared to the control treatment. It is concluded that the addition of zinc to the control did not affect cow performance; however, its addition to chocolate byproducts, protected fats, or their mixture to partially replace corn improved the performance of cows.

Effect of Heat Processing of Rubber Seed Kernel on In Vitro Rumen Biohydrogenation of Fatty Acids and Fermentation

The aim of this study was to assess the effect of rubber seed kernel heat processing on in vitro rumen biohydrogenation of fatty acids and fermentation. The experiment was conducted with a completely randomized design (CRD). The inclusion of RSK at 0% (CON) and 20% with different processing methods as follows: Raw rubber seed kernel (RAWR), roasted rubber seed kernel (ROR), microwave irradiated rubber seed kernel (MIR), and rubber seed kernel were heated in a hot air oven (RHO) in total mixed ration (TMR) diets. The hydrogen cyanide (HCN) was reduced using RSK heat methods. The heat processing of RSK had no effect on cumulative gas production at 96 h, the gas production from the insoluble fraction (b), or degradability (p > 0.05), whereas it reduced the gas production from the immediately soluble fraction (a) and constant rate of gas production for the insoluble fraction (c) (p < 0.01). The RSK processing methods did not influence ruminal pH, total volatile fatty acid (VFA), or VFA proportions (p > 0.05). RSK heat processing reduced ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N) (p < 0.04) while increasing the bacterial population (p < 0.02). Heat treatment had no effect on linoleic acid (C18:2 cis-9,12 + tran-9,12) (p > 0.05). The RHO increases oleic acid (C18:1 cis-9 + tran-9) and linolenic acid (C18:3 cis-9,12,15) concentrations (p < 0.01). In conclusion, RHO reduced rumen biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids (UFA), especially C18:3 and C18:1.

Effects of Rubber Seed Kernel Fermented with Yeast on Feed Utilization, Rumen Fermentation and Microbial Protein Synthesis in Dairy Heifers

Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) has been used to improve the nutritive value of feedstuffs, especially rubber seed kernel. In the current study, rubber seed kernel was grated and subjected to solid-state fermentation with yeast to enhance the nutritive value. The yeast-fermented rubber seed kernel (YERSEK) was substituted for soybean meal in ruminant diets to evaluate the effect of YERSEK on feed intake, digestibility, rumen fermentation and microbial protein synthesis in dairy heifers. Five Holstein Friesian crossbred heifers with an initial body weight (BW) of 215 ± 20 kg were used in this research. The experimental design was a 5 × 5 Latin squared design and the dietary treatments were five levels of YERSEK at 0, 100, 150, 200 and 250 g/kg dry matter in concentrate at 1% of BW, with rice straw fed ad libitum. The supplementation with YERSEK reduced rice straw and total DM intake linearly (p < 0.05). The intake of neutral detergent fiber and acid detergent fiber decreased linearly (p < 0.05), while ether extract intake increased linearly (p < 0.01) with YERSEK supplementation. The ether extract digestibility tended to be high (p < 0.01) with increasing levels of YERSEK. Supplementation with the YERSEK did not change (p > 0.05) ruminal pH and blood urea nitrogen in this study, but ruminal ammonia nitrogen was increased (p < 0.01) in the heifers receiving YERSEK. Increasing the YERSEK levels did not adversely affect the proportion of volatile fatty acids (VFA), which included acetate, propionate and butyrate and the microbial population (p > 0.05). Microbial protein synthesis was similar among the treatments (p > 0.05). The inclusion of YERSEK at 250 g/kg DM in concentrate feed had no effect on the utilization of feed, rumen fermentation characteristics and microbial protein synthesis. The YERSEK could be used as a protein replacement for up to 86% of the soybean meal in feed concentrate for dairy heifers.

Effects of different dietary fat levels and sources on diet digestibility, fattening performance and meat quality of Holstein young bulls when substituted for dietary barley grain

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of substituting dietary barley grain by different sources and levels of fat on performance and meat quality of Holstein young bulls. Twenty-eight Holstein male calves, 274 ± 32 kg initial body weight, were used in a completely randomised design with a 2 × 2 factorial treatment arrangement for 100 d (with 10 d of adaptation). Seven animals were randomly allocated per treatment. Four dietary treatments were tested, which included: (1) diet supplemented with saturated fat (Energizer® RP10) at low level (diet with high barley and starch content), (2) diet supplemented with saturated fat at high level (diet with low barley and starch content), (3) diet supplemented with unsaturated fat (Persiafat) at low level (diet with high barley and starch content) and (4) diet supplemented with unsaturated fat at high level (diet with low barley and starch content). The dry matter intake, average daily gain, feed conversion ratio and carcass traits were not affected by supplemental fat sources and levels. Total tract digestibility of acid detergent fibre was improved after inclusion of both rumen-protected fat sources while other nutrient digestibilities were not affected by the fat sources or levels. In conclusion, partial replacing of dietary starch with fat supplements has not negative effects on calves' performance and digestibility of neutral detergent fibre.

The influence of protected fat in supplements on the performance and carcass characteristics of Nellore beef bulls in tropical pasture

The finishing stages for uncastrated Nellore beef cattle on tropical pasture often produce high yielding carcasses with minimal fat cover. This study aimed to evaluate the performance and carcass characteristics of uncastrated Nellore beef bulls fed a diet containing rumen-protected fat during the rainy period for 210 days. Eighty Nellore beef bulls with 28 months of age, and an initial live weight of 416 kg ± 16 kg, were allocated into eight paddocks (7.0 ha), totaling 56 ha, at 10 animals/paddock, in a continuous-grazing system. The pasture characteristics, performance production, loin-eye area (cm²), subcutaneous fat thickness (mm), and rump fat thickness were evaluated. There was no effect (P > 0.05) on the average total weight gain (203.00 kg) and average daily gain (0.98 kg/day). On the other hand, the subcutaneous fat thickness and rump fat thickness were 42.8% and 49.5% greater, respectively, when the animals were fed a diet containing rumen-protected fat inclusion (P < 0.05). Supplementation with rumen-protected fat provided a thicker fat layer in the carcass of Nellore beef bulls grazing on tropical pasture during the rainy period.

Effects of Bypass Fat on Buffalo Carcass Characteristics, Meat Nutrient Contents and Profitability

The deposition and distribution of buffalo body fats play a vital role in the quality of the buffalo carcass and are of great commercial value, since the carcass quality influences the profitability and consumer acceptability of ruminant meat. The current study examined the effect a mixture of 4% bypass fat and 26% concentrate supplementations in buffalo basal diet had on both the carcass characteristics and the proximate and fatty acid composition in longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL), supraspinatus (SS) and semitendinosus (ST) muscles of Murrah cross and swamp buffaloes. In addition, profit and loss analyses were performed to determine the profitability. This study employed a completely randomized 2 × 2 factorial arrangement with two diets, two breeds and four replicates per treatment. A total of sixteen buffaloes (eight buffaloes per breed, bodyweight 98.64 ± 1.93 kg) were randomly assigned into two dietary groups. The first group was given Diet A, which consisted of 70% Brachiaria decumbens + 30% concentrate, whereas the second group was given Diet B, which consisted of 70% Brachiaria decumbens + 26% concentrate + 4% bypass fat. The buffaloes were fed for 730 days before slaughter. The results showed that supplemented bypass fat significantly (p < 0.05) increased the pre-slaughter weight, hot and cold carcass weights, meat:fat ratio, pH at 24 h, moisture and crude protein of LTL, ST and SS, the ether extract of LTL and ST and the meat fatty acid of C16:0, C16:1, C18:1, PUFA n-6/n-3 and total MUFA. The carcass yield and carcass fat percentages, the ash content in ST, the EE in the SS muscle and the meat fatty acid of C18:3, total PUFA n-3, UFA/SFA and PUFA/SFA were significantly (p < 0.05) decreased. Furthermore, Murrah cross showed a significantly (p < 0.05) higher pre-slaughter weight, hot and cold carcass weights, carcass bone percentage and total fatty acid, but a lower (p < 0.05) meat:bone ratio, ash of LTL and CP of LTL and ST when compared to swamp buffaloes. No significant changes were found in the proximate composition of different types of muscle, but the ST muscle revealed significantly high C14:0, C16:0 and C18:1, and the SS muscle had high C18:2 and total fatty acid (p < 0.05). Supplementing using bypass fat increased the cost of buffalo feeding but resulted in a higher revenue and net profit. In conclusion, the concentrate and bypass fat supplementations in the buffalo diet could alter the nutrient compositions of buffalo meat without a detrimental effect on carcass characteristics, leading to a higher profit.

Energy value of dry fat and stabilised rice bran for broiler chickens

1. The ileal digestible energy (IDE), metabolisable energy (ME) and nitrogen-corrected ME (MEn) of dry fat (DF) and stabilised rice bran (SRB) were determined in two experiments with broiler chickens using the regression method.2. Chickens were fed a common broiler starter diet from d 0 to 17 and experimental diets from d 17 to 22 post hatching. Three diets were prepared; a maize-soybean meal reference diet (RD) and two test diets containing either DF at 50 or 100 g/kg replacement (Experiment 1) or SRB at 100 or 200 g/kg replacement (Experiment 2) of the energy-contributing ingredients in the RD. In each experiment, 192 chickens were randomly allocated to one of three dietary treatments in a randomised complete block design, comprising eight replicate cages with eight birds per cage.3. In Experiment 1, the IDE, ME and MEn linearly increased (P < 0.001) with increasing DF concentrations, while in Experiment 2, the IDE, ME and MEn of the diets were not affected by dietary supplemental SRB. The regression-derived IDE concentration for DF and SRB were 25.30 and 14.88 MJ/kg DM, respectively. The respective ME and MEn estimates (MJ/kg DM) were 25.32 and 24.78 for DF; 14.38 and 13.36 for SRB.4. In conclusion, the current data showed that broiler chickens utilised between 77% and 79% and 68% to 76% of the gross energy (GE) in DF and SRB, respectively, and this suggested a strong potential for these ingredients as dietary energy sources for broiler chickens.

The Impact of Feed Supplementations on Asian Buffaloes: A Review

Simple Summary

Apart from feeding with forages, dietary supplementation with concentrate and rumen bypass fat is one of the feeding strategies to enhance nutrient availability and improve buffalo performance and productivity. This review paper thoroughly discussed the utilization of concentrate and bypass fat as dietary supplementation in buffalo feeding, and discussed the effects on performance, fermentation characteristics and general health of buffaloes to give better insight about the potential and challenges of dietary supplementation in buffalo diet. Based on the literature studies, it can be summarized that supplementation of concentrate and bypass fat in buffaloes may overcome the nutritional problems and improve the growth performance, health status, rumen environment and carcass traits.

Abstract

With the increase in the global buffalo herd, the use of supplementation in the ruminant feeding has become an important area for many researchers who are looking for an isocaloric and isonitrogenous diet to improve production parameters. In order to improve the performance of the Asian water buffalo, the optimal balance of all nutrients, including energy and protein, are important as macronutrients. Dietary supplementation is one of the alternatives to enhance the essential nutrient content in the buffalo diet and to improve the rumen metabolism of the animal. Researchers have found that supplementation of concentrate and rumen bypass fat could change growth performance and carcass traits without causing any adverse effects on the buffalo growth. Some studies showed that dry matter intake, body condition score and some blood parameters and hormones related to growth responded positively to concentrate and rumen bypass fat supplementation. In addition, changes of feeding management by adding the supplement to the ruminant basal diet helped to increase the profit of the local farmers due to the increased performance and productivity of the animals. Nevertheless, the effects of dietary supplementation on the performance of ruminants are inconsistent. Thus, its long-term effects on the health and productivity of buffaloes still need to be further investigated.

Meat Quality, Fatty Acid Content and NMR Metabolic Profile of Dorper Sheep Supplemented with Bypass Fats

The supplementation of rumen bypass fat (RBF) has remained one of the preferred approaches used to decrease undesirable saturated fatty acids (FA) and increase beneficial unsaturated FA in the meat. This study was planned to evaluate the influences of rumen bypass fats on meat quality, fatty acid and metabolic profiles in male Dorper sheep (n = 36) with 24.66 ± 0.76 kg (mean ± standard error) initial body weight. Treatment comprised a basal diet (30:70 rice straw to concentrate) with no added RBF as a control (CON), basal diet with prilled fat (PF), basal diet with prilled fat plus lecithin (PFL) and basal diet with calcium soap of palm fatty acids (CaS). The findings revealed that cooking loss, drip loss and shear force in longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle were not affected by RBF supplementation, while meat pH was significantly higher in the CaS on aging day 1. However, the diet supplemented with prilled fat and lecithin modified the meat's fatty acid profile significantly by increasing unsaturated fatty acids and decreasing saturated fats. The relative quantification of the major differentiating metabolites found in LD muscle of sheep showed that total cholesterol, esterified cholesterol, choline, glycerophosphocholine and glycerophospholipids were significantly lower in CaS and PFL diets, while glycerol and sphingomyelin were significantly higher in CaS and PFL diets. Most of the metabolites in the liver did not show any significant difference. Based on our results, the supplementation of protected fats did not have a negative influence on meat quality and the meat from Dorper sheep fed prilled fat with lecithin contained more healthy fatty acids compared to other diets.

Phytogenic Additives Can Modulate Rumen Microbiome to Mediate Fermentation Kinetics and Methanogenesis Through Exploiting Diet-Microbe Interaction

Ruminants inhabit the consortia of gut microbes that play a critical functional role in their maintenance and nourishment by enabling them to use cellulosic and non-cellulosic feed material. These gut microbes perform major physiological activities, including digestion and metabolism of dietary components, to derive energy to meet major protein (65-85%) and energy (ca 80%) requirements of the host. Owing to their contribution to digestive physiology, rumen microbes are considered one of the crucial factors affecting feed conversion efficiency in ruminants. Any change in the rumen microbiome has an imperative effect on animal physiology. Ruminal microbes are fundamentally anaerobic and produce various compounds during rumen fermentation, which are directly used by the host or other microbes. Methane (CH4) is produced by methanogens through utilizing metabolic hydrogen during rumen fermentation. Maximizing the flow of metabolic hydrogen in the rumen away from CH4 and toward volatile fatty acids (VFA) would increase the efficiency of ruminant production and decrease its environmental impact. Understanding of microbial diversity and rumen dynamics is not only crucial for the optimization of host efficiency but also required to mediate emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from ruminants. There are various strategies to modulate the rumen microbiome, mainly including dietary interventions and the use of different feed additives. Phytogenic feed additives, mainly plant secondary compounds, have been shown to modulate rumen microflora and change rumen fermentation dynamics leading to enhanced animal performance. Many in vitro and in vivo studies aimed to evaluate the use of plant secondary metabolites in ruminants have been conducted using different plants or their extract or essential oils. This review specifically aims to provide insights into dietary interactions of rumen microbes and their subsequent consequences on rumen fermentation. Moreover, a comprehensive overview of the modulation of rumen microbiome by using phytogenic compounds (essential oils, saponins, and tannins) for manipulating rumen dynamics to mediate CH4 emanation from livestock is presented. We have also discussed the pros and cons of each strategy along with future prospective of dietary modulation of rumen microbiome to improve the performance of ruminants while decreasing GHG emissions.

Effect of supplementing palmitic acid and altering the dietary ratio of n-6:n-3 fatty acids in low-fibre diets on production responses of dairy cows

Supplementing palmitic acid (C16 : 0) in combination with modifying the dietary n-6:n-3 fatty acid (FA) ratio may benefit energy metabolism and milk responses of dairy cows. Twelve Holstein cows (70 (sd 11) days in milk) were used in a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square and allocated to four low-fibre diets (18·5 % forage neutral-detergent fibre) supplemented with no FA (CON), or 2·4 % C16 : 0-enriched supplement (PAL), 2·4 % mixture (2:1) of C16 : 0 and n-6 FA (PW6), and mixture (2:1) of C16 : 0 and n-3 FA (PW3). The dietary ratio of n-6:n-3 was increased with PW6 (10:1) and decreased with PW3 (2·8:1), whereas PAL alone made no change in the ratio (about 7:1). Compared with CON, all FA-supplemented treatments increased milk yield. However, feed and energy intakes were higher in PAL than PW3 or PW6, resulting in greater feed efficiency for PW3 and PW6 than PAL. Dietary FA supplements decreased milk protein concentration but tended to increase protein yield. Compared with CON and FA mixtures, PAL increased milk fat content and tended to increase milk SFA and atherosclerotic index. The concentration of milk n-3 FA was similar between CON and PW3. Feeding PAL increased milk energy output and decreased energy partitioning towards body reserves (-4·2 %), while this measure was positive for other treatments. Blood TAG and NEFA concentrations, but not β-hydroxybutyrate, were increased by FA-supplemented treatments. Feeding C16 : 0 combined with either n-6 or n-3 FA enhanced feed efficiency, alleviated the negative impacts on body energy reserves, but lowering the dietary n-6:n-3 ratio improved the FA profile of milk.

Growth-promoting effect of water-washed neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) fruit inclusion in West African dwarf rams

In a study to determine the growth-promoting effect of water-washed neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) fruit (WN) in West African Dwarf (WAD) rams, a total mixed ration was formulated with 0 (WN0), 2.5 (WN2.5), 5.0 (WN5), 7.5 (WN7.5), and 10.0 (WN10) % of WN inclusion. Twenty-five yearling rams (12.3 ± 2.0 kg) were assigned to one of the five dietary groups with five animals per group in a completely randomized design. Each group received the diet for 90 days inclusive of the initial 28 days used for anticoccidial efficacy trial. After the growth trial, three rams from each group were used for digestibility and nitrogen metabolism trial. Anticoccidial efficacy linearly increased (P = 0.002) with increased inclusion of WN and duration of feeding (P = 0.003). Feed intake (P = 0.018) and weight gain (P = 0.009) quadratically increased with WN5 inclusion compared to WN10. Optimal inclusion level of WN for daily weight gain was 5.1% (R² = 0.30). Digestibility of crude protein was linearly and quadratically increased (P = 0.032; P = 0.031, respectively) with up to WN7.5 inclusion. Nitrogen retention was similar among the treatments. Incorporation of water-washed neem fruit in the diets of West African dwarf rams improved nutrient utilization and animal health by increasing anticoccidial efficacy, feed intake, and weight gain. This is an indication that water-washed neem fruit could be used as growth promoter in sheep production.

Impact of high-concentrate diets with cottonseed associated with calcium lignosulfonate on the metabolic, productive, and carcass characteristics of feedlot lambs

This study aimed to evaluate the metabolic, productive, and carcass parameters of feedlot lambs fed high-concentrate diets with cottonseed associated with calcium lignosulfonate. Treatments consisted of diets including whole cottonseed, crushed cottonseed, whole cottonseed with lignosulfonate (100 g/kg), crushed cottonseed with lignosulfonate (100 g/kg), and a control diet without cottonseed. Thirty ½ Dorper ½ Santa Inês, non-castrated male lambs with an average live weight of 24.9 ± 3.6 kg and an average age of 3.5 months were evaluated in a completely randomized design. There was no effect (P > 0.05) on the intakes of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, and non-fibrous carbohydrates. The crushing of cottonseed and association with lignosulfonate increased (P < 0.01) the intake and digestibility of ether extract. No effect was observed (P > 0.05) for the concentrations of urine and plasma urea N, which averaged 616.2 and 108.6 mg/dL, respectively. There was a change (P < 0.01) in nitrogen balance for digested N in g/day. There was no effect (P > 0.05) on the urinary concentration of purine derivatives, except for uric acid excretions (P < 0.05). Lignosulfonate associated with cottonseed provided an average daily gain of 0.293 kg/day, which was higher than the 0.226 kg/day obtained without lignosulfonate, but lower than control (0.302 kg/day), which also showed higher values of carcass yield. High-concentrate diets formulated without cottonseed improve lamb production performance. The use of high-concentrate diets with cottonseed associated with calcium lignosulfonate provides greater weight gains in lambs.

Palmitic acid-enriched fat supplementation alleviates negative production responses during early lactation of Holstein dairy cows

Effects of rumen-protected fat (RPF) on suppressing the negative performance responses in early lactation period of Holstein dairy cows were investigated. Three hundred multiparous Holstein cows (647 ± 16 kg bodyweight and 90 days in milk (DIM)) were randomly housed into three free-stall barns (100 cows per barn) and assigned to the treatments for 90 days, as follows: (1) control (CTL) diet without RPF; (2) calcium salt of palm fatty acids (CaFA) 30 g/kg DM, and (3) fractionated fatty acids of palm oil (FFA) 25 g/kg DM. Cows were fed total mixed ration containing 580 g of concentrate and 420 g of roughage per kilogram DM. Cows fed FFA exhibited a higher (P &lt; 0.05) DM intake and body condition score than did those fed CaFA or CTL diets respectively. Moreover, cows fed the FFA diet showed decreased (P &lt; 0.05) changes to bodyweight at 30 DIM and to body condition score at 60 DIM and increased digestibility of ether extract and neutral detergent fibre. Blood concentrations of triglycerides, cholesterol and glucose were higher (P &lt; 0.05) for cows fed FFA diet than for those fed the other diets, between 4 and 30 DIM, whereas concentrations of non-esterified fatty acids, β-hydroxybutyric acid and urine ketones were lower for cows fed RPF sources (P &lt; 0.05). Relative to CTL diet, CaFA and FFA diets increased (P &lt; 0.05) milk yield and milk fat content at 4–30 DIM. Feeding FFA improved feed efficiency by 8.9% (P = 0.006), between 31 and 60 DIM, compared with CaFA. Inclusion of a palmitic acid-enriched fat supplement in Holstein cow diet increased milk yield and fat content and mitigated the deleterious effects of metabolic disorders during the early lactation period.