1
|
Qubais Saeed B, Hamdy R, Akbar N, Sajeevan SE, Khan NA, Soliman SSM. Azole-based compounds as potential anti- Acanthamoeba agents. RSC Med Chem 2024; 15:1578-1588. [PMID: 38784450 PMCID: PMC11110792 DOI: 10.1039/d4md00029c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Acanthamoeba castellanii is an opportunistic pathogen with public health implications, largely due to its invasive nature and non-specific symptoms. Our study focuses on the potential of azole compounds, particularly those with triazole scaffolds, as anti-amoebic agents. Out of 10 compounds, compounds T1 and T8 exhibited effective anti-Acanthamoeba activity with MIC50 values of 125.37 and 143.92 μg mL-1, respectively. Interestingly, compounds T1, T4, T5 and T8 revealed profound anti-excystation activity with MIC50 at 32.01, 85.53, 19.54 and 80.57 μg mL-1, respectively, alongside limited cytotoxicity to human cells. The study underscores the potential of T1, T4, T5, and T8, thiazole-based compounds, as anti-Acanthamoeba agents by both eliminating amoeba viability and preventing excystation, via preserving the amoeba in its latent cyst form, exposing them to elimination by the immune system. Notably, compounds T1, T4, T5, and T8 showed optimal molecular properties, moderate oral bioavailability, and stable complex formation with Acanthamoeba CYP51. They also display superior binding interactions. Further research is needed to understand their mechanisms and optimize their efficacy against Acanthamoeba infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Balsam Qubais Saeed
- Research Institute of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Sharjah Sharjah 27272 United Arab Emirates
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah Sharjah 27272 United Arab Emirates
| | - Rania Hamdy
- Research Institute of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Sharjah Sharjah 27272 United Arab Emirates
- Research Institute for Science and Engineering (RISE), University of Sharjah Sharjah 27272 United Arab Emirates
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University Zagazig 44519 Egypt
| | - Noor Akbar
- Research Institute of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Sharjah Sharjah 27272 United Arab Emirates
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah Sharjah 27272 United Arab Emirates
| | | | - Naveed Ahmed Khan
- Microbiota Research Centre, Istinye University Istanbul 34010 Turkey
| | - Sameh S M Soliman
- Research Institute of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Sharjah Sharjah 27272 United Arab Emirates
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah Sharjah P.O. Box 27272 United Arab Emirates +97165057472
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Rajendran K, Ahmed U, Meunier AC, Shaikh MF, Siddiqui R, Anwar A. Nanoparticle-Terpene Fusion: A Game-Changer in Combating Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis Caused by Naegleria fowleri. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:11597-11607. [PMID: 38497026 PMCID: PMC10938409 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c08844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 12/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Abstract
Pathogenic Naegleria fowleri (N. fowleri) are opportunistic free-living amoebae and are the causative agents of a very rare but severe brain infection called primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). The fatality rate of PAM in reported cases is more than 95%. Most of the drugs used againstN. fowleri infections are repurposed drugs. Therefore, a large number of compounds have been tested againstN. fowleri in vitro, but most of the tested compounds showed high toxicity and an inability to cross the blood-brain barrier. Andrographolide, forskolin, and borneol are important natural compounds that have shown various valuable biological properties. In the present study, the nanoconjugates (AND-AgNPs, BOR-AgNPs, and FOR-AgNPs) of these compounds were synthesized and assessed against both stages (trophozoite and cyst) ofN. fowleri for their antiamoebic and cysticidal potential in vitro. In addition, cytotoxicity and host cell pathogenicity were also evaluated in vitro. FOR-AgNPs were the most potent nanoconjugate and showed potent antiamoebic activity againstN. fowleriwith an IC50 of 26.35 μM. Nanoconjugates FOR-AgNPs, BOR-AgNPs, and AND-AgNPs also significantly inhibit the viability of N. fowleri cysts. Cytotoxicity assessment showed that these nanoconjugates caused minimum damage to human keratinocyte cells (HaCaT cells) at 100 μg/mL, while also effectively reducing the cytopathogenicity of N. fowleri trophozoites to the HaCaT cells. The outcomes of our experiments have unveiled substantial potential for AND-AgNPs, BOR-AgNPs, and FOR-AgNPs in the realm of developing innovative alternative therapeutic agents to combat infections caused by N. fowleri. This study represents a significant step forward in the pursuit of advanced strategies for managing such amoebic infections, laying the foundation for the development of novel and more effective therapeutic modalities in the fight against free-living amoebae.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kavitha Rajendran
- School
of American Education, Sunway University, Subang Jaya 47500, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Usman Ahmed
- Department
of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Subang Jaya 47500, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Alexia Chloe Meunier
- Department
of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Subang Jaya 47500, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Farooq Shaikh
- Neuropharmacology
Research Laboratory, Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway 47500, Malaysia
- School
of Dentistry and Medical Sciences, Charles
Sturt University, Orange 2800, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Ruqaiyyah Siddiqui
- Department
of Microbiota Research Centre, Istinye University, Istanbul 34010, Turkey
| | - Ayaz Anwar
- Department
of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Subang Jaya 47500, Selangor, Malaysia
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Rao K, Abdullah M, Ahmed U, Wehelie HI, Shah MR, Siddiqui R, Khan NA, Alawfi BS, Anwar A. Self-assembled micelles loaded with itraconazole as anti-Acanthamoeba nano-formulation. Arch Microbiol 2024; 206:134. [PMID: 38433145 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-024-03854-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 01/13/2024] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
Acanthamoeba castellanii are opportunistic pathogens known to cause infection of the central nervous system termed: granulomatous amoebic encephalitis, that mostly effects immunocompromised individuals, and a sight threatening keratitis, known as Acanthamoeba keratitis, which mostly affects contact lens wearers. The current treatment available is problematic, and is toxic. Herein, an amphiphilic star polymer with AB2 miktoarms [A = hydrophobic poly(ℇ-Caprolacton) and B = hydrophilic poly (ethylene glycol)] was synthesized by ring opening polymerization and CuI catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition. Characterization by 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy, size-exclusion chromatography and fluorescence spectroscopy was accomplished. The hydrophobic drug itraconazole (ITZ) was incorporated in self-assembled micellar structure of AB2 miktoarms through co-solvent evaporation. The properties of ITZ loaded (ITZ-PCL-PEG2) and blank micelles (PCL-PEG2) were investigated through zeta sizer, scanning electron microscopy and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Itraconazole alone (ITZ), polymer (DPB-PCL), empty polymeric micelles (PCL-PEG2) alone, and itraconazole loaded in polymeric micelles (ITZ-PCL-PEG2) were tested for anti-amoebic potential against Acanthamoeba, and the cytotoxicity on human cells were determined. The polymer was able to self-assemble in aqueous conditions and exhibited low value for critical micelle concentration (CMC) 0.05-0.06 µg/mL. The maximum entrapment efficiency of ITZ was 68%. Of note, ITZ, DPB, PCL-PEG2 and ITZ-PCL-PEG2 inhibited amoebae trophozoites by 37.34%, 36.30%, 35.77%, and 68.24%, respectively, as compared to controls. Moreover, ITZ-PCL-PEG2 revealed limited cytotoxicity against human keratinocyte cells. These results are indicative that ITZ-PCL-PEG2 micelle show significantly better anti-amoebic effects as compared to ITZ alone and thus should be investigated further in vivo to determine its clinical potential.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Komal Rao
- International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, Karachi University, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Abdullah
- International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, Karachi University, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan
| | - Usman Ahmed
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, 47500, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Hashi Isse Wehelie
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, 47500, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Muhammad Raza Shah
- International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, Karachi University, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan
| | - Ruqaiyyah Siddiqui
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Biophysics and Bioengineering, Heriot-Watt University Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH14 4AS, UK
- Microbiota Research Center, Istinye University, 34010, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Naveed A Khan
- Microbiota Research Center, Istinye University, 34010, Istanbul, Turkey.
| | - Bader S Alawfi
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University, 42353, Madinah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ayaz Anwar
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, 47500, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Pomeroy J, Khalifa MM, Milanes JE, Palmentiero CM, Morris JC, Golden JE. Synthesis and Evaluation of Benzylamine Inhibitors of Neuropathogenic Naegleria fowleri "Brain-Eating" Amoeba. ACS Med Chem Lett 2024; 15:87-92. [PMID: 38229759 PMCID: PMC10789148 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.3c00440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Current therapy for primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), a highly lethal brain infection in humans caused by Naegleria fowleri amoeba, is restricted to repurposed drugs with limited efficacy and success. Discovery of an antiamoebic benzylamine scaffold 2 precipitated a medicinal chemistry effort to improve potency, cytotoxicity profile, and drug-like properties. Thirty-four compounds were prepared, leading to compound 28 with significant gains in potency (EC50 = 0.92 μM), solubility, and microsomal stability and a demonstrated absence of cytotoxicity in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells (CC50 > 20 μM). The compounds demonstrated excellent blood-brain barrier permeability in an in vitro assay, thereby providing a new structural scaffold that inhibits N. fowleri viability and permits the investigation of therapeutic interventions in an understudied neglected disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julia
M. Pomeroy
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United
States
| | - Muhammad M. Khalifa
- School
of Pharmacy, Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, United States
| | - Jillian E. Milanes
- Eukaryotic
Pathogens Innovation Center, Department of Genetics and Biochemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, United States
| | - Caroline M. Palmentiero
- Eukaryotic
Pathogens Innovation Center, Department of Genetics and Biochemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, United States
| | - James C. Morris
- Eukaryotic
Pathogens Innovation Center, Department of Genetics and Biochemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, United States
| | - Jennifer E. Golden
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United
States
- School
of Pharmacy, Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, United States
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Siddiqui R, Yee Ong TY, Maciver S, Khan NA. Can Amphotericin B-mediated effects be limited using intranasal versus intravenous route? Ther Deliv 2023; 14:485-490. [PMID: 37691579 DOI: 10.4155/tde-2023-0032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Aim: CNS infections due to parasites often prove fatal. In part, this is due to inefficacy of drugs to cross the blood-brain barrier. Methods: Here, we tested intranasal and intravenous route and compared adverse effects of Amphotericin B administration, through blood biochemistry, liver, kidney and brain histopathological evidence of toxicities in vivo post-administration. Results: It was observed that intranasal route limits the adverse side effects of Amphotericin B, in contrast to intravenous route. Conclusion: As parasites such as Naegleria fowleri exhibit unequivocal affinity toward the olfactory bulb and frontal lobe in the central nervous system, intranasal administration would directly reach amoebae bypassing the blood-brain barrier selectivity and achieve the minimum inhibitory concentration at the target site.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruqaiyyah Siddiqui
- College of Arts & Sciences, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah - United Arab Emirates
- Microbiota Research Center, Istinye University, Istanbul, 34010, Turkey
| | - Timothy Yu Yee Ong
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Science & Technology, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
| | - Sutherland Maciver
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Naveed Ahmed Khan
- Microbiota Research Center, Istinye University, Istanbul, 34010, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Siddiqui R, Boghossian A, Kawish M, Jabri T, Shah MR, Anuar TS, Al-Shareef Z, Khan NA. Nanocarrier Drug Conjugates Exhibit Potent Anti-Naegleria fowleri and Anti-Balamuthia mandrillaris Properties. Diseases 2023; 11:diseases11020058. [PMID: 37092440 PMCID: PMC10123729 DOI: 10.3390/diseases11020058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Given the opportunity and access, pathogenic protists (Balamuthia mandrillaris and Naegleria fowleri) can produce fatal infections involving the central nervous system. In the absence of effective treatments, there is a need to either develop new antimicrobials or enhance the efficacy of existing compounds. Nanocarriers as drug delivery systems are gaining increasing attention in the treatment of parasitic infections. In this study, novel nanocarriers conjugated with amphotericin B and curcumin were evaluated for anti-amoebic efficacy against B. mandrillaris and N. fowleri. The results showed that nanocarrier conjugated amphotericin B exhibited enhanced cidal properties against both amoebae tested compared with the drug alone. Similarly, nanocarrier conjugated curcumin exhibited up to 75% cidal effects versus approx. 50% cidal effects for curcumin alone. Cytopathogenicity assays revealed that the pre-treatment of both parasites with nanoformulated-drugs reduced parasite-mediated host cellular death compared with the drugs alone. Importantly, the cytotoxic effects of amphotericin B on human cells alone were reduced when conjugated with nanocarriers. These are promising findings and further suggest the need to explore nanocarriers as a means to deliver medicine against parasitic infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruqaiyyah Siddiqui
- College of Arts and Sciences, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah 26666, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Istinye University, Istanbul 34010, Turkey
| | - Anania Boghossian
- College of Arts and Sciences, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah 26666, United Arab Emirates
| | - Muhammad Kawish
- International Centre for Chemical and Biological Sciences, H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
| | - Tooba Jabri
- International Centre for Chemical and Biological Sciences, H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Raza Shah
- International Centre for Chemical and Biological Sciences, H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
| | - Tengku Shahrul Anuar
- Centre for Medical Laboratory Technology Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, PuncakAlam Campus, Selangor 42300, Malaysia
| | - Zainab Al-Shareef
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates
| | - Naveed Ahmed Khan
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Istinye University, Istanbul 34010, Turkey
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Siddiqui R, Boghossian A, Alqassim SS, Kawish M, Gul J, Jabri T, Shah MR, Khan NA. Anti-Balamuthia mandrillaris and anti-Naegleria fowleri effects of drugs conjugated with various nanostructures. Arch Microbiol 2023; 205:170. [PMID: 37017767 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-023-03518-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/25/2023] [Indexed: 04/06/2023]
Abstract
Balamuthia mandrillaris and Naegleria fowleri are protist pathogens that can cause fatal infections. Despite mortality rate of > 90%, there is no effective therapy. Treatment remains problematic involving repurposed drugs, e.g., azoles, amphotericin B and miltefosine but requires early diagnosis. In addition to drug discovery, modifying existing drugs using nanotechnology offers promise in the development of therapeutic interventions against these parasitic infections. Herein, various drugs conjugated with nanoparticles were developed and evaluated for their antiprotozoal activities. Characterizations of the drugs' formulations were accomplished utilizing Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, efficiency of drug entrapment, polydispersity index, zeta potential, size, and surface morphology. The nanoconjugates were tested against human cells to determine their toxicity in vitro. The majority of drug nanoconjugates exhibited amoebicidal effects against B. mandrillaris and N. fowleri. Amphotericin B-, Sulfamethoxazole-, Metronidazole-based nanoconjugates are of interest since they exhibited significant amoebicidal effects against both parasites (p < 0.05). Furthermore, Sulfamethoxazole and Naproxen significantly diminished host cell death caused by B. mandrillaris by up to 70% (p < 0.05), while Amphotericin B-, Sulfamethoxazole-, Metronidazole-based drug nanoconjugates showed the highest reduction in host cell death caused by N. fowleri by up to 80%. When tested alone, all of the drug nanoconjugates tested in this study showed limited toxic effects against human cells in vitro (less than 20%). Although these are promising findings, prospective work is warranted to comprehend the mechanistic details of nanoconjugates versus amoebae as well as their in vivo testing, to develop antimicrobials against the devastating infections caused by these parasites.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruqaiyyah Siddiqui
- College of Arts and Sciences, American University of Sharjah, University City, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Istinye University, Istanbul, 34010, Turkey
| | - Anania Boghossian
- College of Arts and Sciences, American University of Sharjah, University City, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Saif S Alqassim
- College of Medicine, Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences, 505055, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Muhammad Kawish
- International Centre for Chemical and Biological Sciences, H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan
| | - Jasra Gul
- International Centre for Chemical and Biological Sciences, H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan
| | - Tooba Jabri
- International Centre for Chemical and Biological Sciences, H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Raza Shah
- International Centre for Chemical and Biological Sciences, H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan
| | - Naveed Ahmed Khan
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Istinye University, Istanbul, 34010, Turkey.
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, University City, 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Ahmed U, Manzoor M, Qureshi S, Mazhar M, Fatima A, Aurangzeb S, Hamid M, Khan KM, Khan NA, Rashid Y, Anwar A. Anti-amoebic effects of synthetic acridine-9(10H)-one against brain-eating amoebae. Acta Trop 2023; 239:106824. [PMID: 36610529 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2023.106824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Pathogenic A. castellanii and N. fowleri are opportunistic free-living amoebae. Acanthamoeba spp. are the causative agents of granulomatous amebic encephalitis (GAE) and amebic keratitis (AK), whereas Naegleria fowleri causes a very rare but severe brain infection called primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). Acridinone is an important heterocyclic scaffold and both synthetic and naturally occurring derivatives have shown various valuable biological properties. In the present study, ten synthetic Acridinone derivatives (I-X) were synthesized and assessed against both amoebae for anti-amoebic and cysticidal activities in vitro. In addition, excystation, encystation, cytotoxicity, host cell pathogenicity was also performed in-vitro. Furthermore, molecular docking studies of these compounds with three cathepsin B paralogous enzymes of N. fowleri were performed in order to predict the possible docking mode with pathogen. Compound VII showed potent anti-amoebic activity against A. castellanii with IC50 53.46 µg/mL, while compound IX showed strong activity against N. fowleri in vitro with IC50 72.41 µg/mL. Compounds II and VII showed a significant inhibition of phenotypic alteration of A. castellanii, while compound VIII significantly inhibited N. fowleri cysts. Cytotoxicity assessment showed that these compounds caused minimum damage to human keratinocyte cells (HaCaT cells) at 100 µg/mL, while also effectively reduced the cytopathogenicity of Acanthamoeba to HaCaT cells. Moreover, Cathepsin B protease was investigated in-silico as a new molecular therapeutic target for these compounds. All compounds showed potential interactions with the catalytic residues. These results showed that acridine-9(10H)-one derivatives, in particular compounds II, VII, VIII and IX hold promise in the development of therapeutic agents against these free-living amoebae.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Usman Ahmed
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Mehwish Manzoor
- H. E. J. Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Sehrish Qureshi
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Muzna Mazhar
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Arj Fatima
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Sana Aurangzeb
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Mehwish Hamid
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Khalid Mohammed Khan
- H. E. J. Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Institute for Research and Medical Consultations (IRMC), Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
| | - Naveed Ahmed Khan
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, University City, United Arab Emirates; Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Istinye University, Istanbul, 34010, Turkey
| | - Yasmeen Rashid
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan.
| | - Ayaz Anwar
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Fan X, Chen T, Yang H, Gao Y, Chen Y. Encephalomyelomeningitis Caused by Balamuthia mandrillaris: A Case Report and Literature Review. Infect Drug Resist 2023; 16:727-733. [PMID: 36756612 PMCID: PMC9901442 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s400692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Central nervous system infection by Balamuthia mandrillaris is a rare and severe condition, which has a fatality rate of approximately 95% and often evades timely diagnosis due to its rarity and non-specific clinical manifestations. Here, we report a case of encephalomyelomeningitis caused by B. mandrillaris in a male who presented with transient coma, nausea, and vomiting when working in a garbage dump. Initial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain showed normal signals. Despite receiving steroids as well as antibacterial and antiviral treatment, he developed urinary and fecal dysfunction, inability to walk, and deterioration of consciousness. Both brain and spinal cord MRI revealed abnormal findings, and next-generation sequencing of the cerebrospinal fluid showed the presence of B. mandrillaris. A combination of fluconazole and albendazole was administered; however, the patient deteriorated gradually and died 30 days after the onset. We suggest the unbiased metagenomic sequencing of the affected tissues/CSF in patients with CNS infections that are difficult to diagnose or treat, and multiple tests at different stages of the disease may be required.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- XueMei Fan
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hangzhou First People’s Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - TianWen Chen
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hangzhou First People’s Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hui Yang
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hangzhou First People’s Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yue Gao
- Department of General Practice, Affiliated Hangzhou First People’s Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China,Yue Gao, Tel +86 13706511908; +86 531-56006851, Email
| | - Yan Chen
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hangzhou First People’s Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China,Correspondence: Yan Chen, Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hangzhou First People’s Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No. 261, Huan Sha Road, Shangcheng District, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China, Tel +86 15397086693; +86 531-56006952, Email
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Siddiqui R, El-Gamal MI, Boghossian A, Saeed BQ, Oh CH, Abdel-Maksoud MS, Alharbi AM, Alfahemi H, Khan NA. Imidazothiazole Derivatives Exhibited Potent Effects against Brain-Eating Amoebae. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 11:1515. [PMID: 36358170 PMCID: PMC9686523 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11111515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Naegleria fowleri (N. fowleri) is a free-living, unicellular, opportunistic protist responsible for the fatal central nervous system infection, primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). Given the increase in temperatures due to global warming and climate change, it is estimated that the cases of PAM are on the rise. However, there is a current lack of awareness and effective drugs, meaning there is an urgent need to develop new therapeutic drugs. In this study, the target compounds were synthesized and tested for their anti-amoebic properties against N. fowleri. Most compounds exhibited significant amoebicidal effects against N. fowleri; for example, 1h, 1j, and 1q reduced N. fowleri's viability to 15.14%, 17.45% and 28.78%, respectively. Furthermore, the majority of the compounds showed reductions in amoeba-mediated host death. Of interest are the compounds 1f, 1k, and 1v, as they were capable of reducing the amoeba-mediated host cell death to 52.3%, 51%, and 56.9% from 100%, respectively. Additionally, these compounds exhibit amoebicidal properties as well; they were found to decrease N. fowleri's viability to 26.41%, 27.39%, and 24.13% from 100%, respectively. Moreover, the MIC50 values for 1e, 1f, and 1h were determined to be 48.45 µM, 60.87 µM, and 50.96 µM, respectively. Additionally, the majority of compounds were found to exhibit limited cytotoxicity, except for 1l, 1o, 1p, 1m, 1c, 1b, 1zb, 1z, 1y, and 1x, which exhibited negligible toxicity. It is anticipated that these compounds may be developed further as effective treatments against these devastating infections due to brain-eating amoebae.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruqaiyyah Siddiqui
- College of Arts and Sciences, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah 26666, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Istinye University, Istanbul 34010, Turkey
| | - Mohammed I. El-Gamal
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates
- Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
| | - Anania Boghossian
- College of Arts and Sciences, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah 26666, United Arab Emirates
| | - Balsam Qubais Saeed
- Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates
| | - Chang-Hyun Oh
- Center of Biomaterials, Korea Institute of Science & Technology (KIST School), Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02792, Korea
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Science & Technology (UST), Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34113, Korea
| | - Mohammed S. Abdel-Maksoud
- Medicinal & Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Division, National Research Centre (NRC), Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Ahmad M. Alharbi
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hasan Alfahemi
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Al-Baha University, Al-Baha 65799, Saudi Arabia
| | - Naveed Ahmed Khan
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Istinye University, Istanbul 34010, Turkey
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Zinc Oxide Nanoconjugates against Brain-Eating Amoebae. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 11:antibiotics11101281. [DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11101281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Naegleria fowleri and Balamuthia mandrillaris are opportunistic protists, responsible for fatal central nervous system infections such as primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) and granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE) with mortality rates higher than 90%. Threatening a rise in cases is the increase in temperature due to global warming. No effective treatment is currently available. Herein, nanotechnology was used to conjugate Zinc oxide with Ampicillin, Ceftrixon, Naringin, Amphotericin B, and Quericitin, and the amoebicidal activity and host cell cytotoxicity of these resulting compounds were investigated. The compounds ZnO-CD-AMPi, ZnO-CD-CFT, ZnO-CD-Nar, ZnO-CD-AMB, and ZnO-CD-QT were found to reduce N. fowleri viability to 35.5%, 39.6%, 52.0%, 50.8%, 35.9%, and 69.9%, respectively, and B. mandrillaris viability to 40.9%, 48.2%, 51.6%, 43.8%, and 62.4%, respectively, when compared with their corresponding controls. Furthermore, the compounds reduced N. fowleri-mediated and B. mandrillaris-mediated host cell death significantly. Additionally, the compounds showed limited cytotoxicity against human cells; cell toxicity was 35.5%, 36.4%, 30.9%, 36.6%, and 35.6%, respectively, for the compounds ZnO-CD-AMPi, ZnO-CD-CFT, ZnO-CD-Nar, ZnO-CD-AMB, and ZnO-CD-QT. Furthermore, the minimum inhibitory concentrations to inhibit amoeba growth by 50% were determined for N. fowleri and B. mandrillaris. The MIC50 for N. fowleri were determined to be 69.52 µg/mL, 82.05 µg/mL, 88.16 µg/mL, 95.61 µg/mL, and 85.69 µg/mL, respectively; the MIC50 of the compounds for B. mandrillaris were determined to be 113.9 µg/mL, 102.3 µg/mL, 106.9 µg/mL, 146.4 µg/mL, and 129.6 µg/mL, respectively. Translational research to further develop therapies based on these compounds is urgently warranted, given the lack of effective therapies currently available against these devastating infections.
Collapse
|
12
|
Tatu AL, Nadasdy T. Comment on 'Don't Judge a Book by its Cover. "Steroid Acne": an Unrecognized Role of Malassezia and Demodex?' by Melin et al. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2021; 36:e232-e233. [PMID: 34843135 DOI: 10.1111/jdv.17843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A L Tatu
- Dermatology Department, 'Sf. Cuvioasa Parascheva' Clinical Hospital of Infectious Diseases, Galati, Romania.,Clinical Department, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, 'Dunarea de Jos' University, Galati, Romania.,Research Center in the Field of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, ReFORM-UDJ, Galati, Romania.,Multidisciplinary Integrative Center for Dermatologic Interface Research MIC-DIR, Galati, Romania
| | - T Nadasdy
- Dermatology Department, 'Sf. Cuvioasa Parascheva' Clinical Hospital of Infectious Diseases, Galati, Romania.,Multidisciplinary Integrative Center for Dermatologic Interface Research MIC-DIR, Galati, Romania
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Mungroo MR, Khan NA, Maciver S, Siddiqui R. Opportunistic free-living amoebal pathogens. Pathog Glob Health 2021; 116:70-84. [PMID: 34602025 DOI: 10.1080/20477724.2021.1985892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic free-living amoebae affecting the central nervous system are known to cause granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE) or primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). Although hosts with impaired immunity are generally at a higher risk of severe disease, amoebae such as Naegleria fowleri and Balamuthia mandrillaris can instigate disease in otherwise immunocompetent individuals, whereas Acanthamoeba species mostly infect immunocompromised people. Acanthamoeba also cause a sight-threatening eye infection, mostly in contact lens wearers. Although infections due to pathogenic amoebae are considered rare, recently, these deadly amoebae were detected in water supplies in the USA. This is of particular concern, especially with global warming further exacerbating the problem. Herein, we describe the epidemiology, presentation, diagnosis, and management of free-living amoeba infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Ridwane Mungroo
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University City, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Naveed Ahmed Khan
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University City, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.,Research Institute of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE
| | - Sutherland Maciver
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Ruqaiyyah Siddiqui
- College of Arts and Sciences, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Güémez A, García E. Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis by Naegleria fowleri: Pathogenesis and Treatments. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11091320. [PMID: 34572533 PMCID: PMC8469197 DOI: 10.3390/biom11091320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Naegleria fowleri is a free-living amoeba (FLA) that is commonly known as the "brain-eating amoeba." This parasite can invade the central nervous system (CNS), causing an acute and fulminating infection known as primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). Even though PAM is characterized by low morbidity, it has shown a mortality rate of 98%, usually causing death in less than two weeks after the initial exposure. This review summarizes the most recent information about N. fowleri, its pathogenic molecular mechanisms, and the neuropathological processes implicated. Additionally, this review includes the main therapeutic strategies described in case reports and preclinical studies, including the possible use of immunomodulatory agents to decrease neurological damage.
Collapse
|
15
|
Mungroo MR, Khan NA, Anwar A, Siddiqui R. Nanovehicles in the improved treatment of infections due to brain-eating amoebae. Int Microbiol 2021; 25:225-235. [PMID: 34368912 DOI: 10.1007/s10123-021-00201-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Pathogenic free-living amoebae are known to cause fatal central nervous system infections with extremely high mortality rates. High selectivity of the blood-brain barrier hampers delivery of drugs and untargeted delivery of drugs can cause severe side effects. Nanovehicles can be used for targeted drug delivery across the blood-brain barrier. Inorganic nanoparticles have been explored as carriers for various biomedical applications and can be modified with various ligands for efficient targeting and cell selectivity while lipid-based nanoparticles have been extensively used in the development of both precision and colloidal nanovehicles. Nanomicelles and polymeric nanoparticles can also serve as nanocarriers and may be modified so that responsiveness of the nanoparticles and release of the loads are linked to specific stimuli. These nanoparticles are discussed here in the context of the treatment of central nervous system infections due to pathogenic amoebae. It is anticipated that these novel strategies can be utilized in tandem with novel drug leads currently in the pipeline and yield in the development of much needed treatments against these devastating parasites.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Ridwane Mungroo
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Naveed Ahmed Khan
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
| | - Ayaz Anwar
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Subang Jaya 47500, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Ruqaiyyah Siddiqui
- College of Arts and Sciences, American University of Sharjah, 26666, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Debnath A. Drug discovery for primary amebic meningoencephalitis: from screen to identification of leads. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2021; 19:1099-1106. [PMID: 33496193 DOI: 10.1080/14787210.2021.1882302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Naegleria fowleri is responsible for primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) which has a fatality rate of >97%. Because of the rarity of the disease, pharmaceutical companies do not pursue new drug discovery for PAM. Yet, it is possible that the infection is underreported and finding a better drug would have an impact on people suffering from this deadly infection.Areas covered: This paper reports the efforts undertaken by different academic groups over the last 20 years to test different compounds against N. fowleri. The drug discovery research encompassed synthesis of new compounds, development and use of high-throughput screening methods and attempts to repurpose clinically developed or FDA-approved compounds for the treatment of PAM.Expert opinion: In absence of economic investment to develop new drugs for PAM, repurposing the FDA-approved drugs has been the best strategy so far to identify new leads against N. fowleri. Increasing use of high-throughput phenotypic screening has the potential to accelerate the identification of new leads, either in monotherapy or in combination treatment. Since phase II clinical trial is not possible for PAM, it is critical to demonstrate in vivo efficacy of a clinically safe compound to translate the discovery from lab to the clinic.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anjan Debnath
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Kanwal, Mungroo MR, Anwar A, Ali F, Khan S, Abdullah MA, Siddiqui R, Khan KM, Khan NA. Synthetic nanoparticle-conjugated bisindoles and hydrazinyl arylthiazole as novel antiamoebic agents against brain-eating amoebae. Exp Parasitol 2020; 218:107979. [PMID: 32866583 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2020.107979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Balamuthia mandrillaris and Naegleria fowleri are free-living amoebae that can cause life-threatening infections involving the central nervous system. The high mortality rates of these infections demonstrate an urgent need for novel treatment options against the amoebae. Considering that indole and thiazole compounds possess wide range of antiparasitic properties, novel bisindole and thiazole derivatives were synthesized and evaluated against the amoebae. The antiamoebic properties of four synthetic compounds i.e., two new bisindoles (2-Bromo-4-(di (1H-indol-3-yl)methyl)phenol (denoted as A1) and 2-Bromo-4-(di (1H-indol-3-yl)methyl)-6-methoxyphenol (A2)) and two known thiazole (4-(3-Nitrophenyl)-2-(2-(pyridin-3-ylmethylene)hydrazinyl)thiazole (A3) and 4-(Biphenyl-4-yl)-2-(2-(1-(pyridin-4-yl)ethylidene)hydrazinyl)thiazole (A4)) were evaluated against B. mandrillaris and N. fowleri. The ability of silver nanoparticle (AgNPs) conjugation to enrich antiamoebic activities of the compounds was also investigated. The synthetic heterocyclic compounds demonstrated up to 53% and 69% antiamoebic activities against B. mandrillaris and N. fowleri respectively, while resulting in up to 57% and 68% amoebistatic activities, respectively. Antiamoebic activities of the compounds were enhanced by up to 71% and 51% against B. mandrillaris and N. fowleri respectively, after conjugation with AgNPs. These compounds exhibited potential antiamoebic effects against B. mandrillaris and N. fowleri and conjugation of synthetic heterocyclic compounds with AgNPs enhanced their activity against the amoebae.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kanwal
- Institute of Marine Biotechnology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, 21030, Malaysia; H. E. J. Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan
| | - Mohammad Ridwane Mungroo
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Science and Technology, Sunway University, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, 47500, Malaysia
| | - Ayaz Anwar
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Science and Technology, Sunway University, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, 47500, Malaysia.
| | - Farman Ali
- H. E. J. Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan
| | - Simal Khan
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Science and Technology, Sunway University, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, 47500, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Azmuddin Abdullah
- Institute of Marine Biotechnology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, 21030, Malaysia
| | - Ruqaiyyah Siddiqui
- Department of Biology, Chemistry and Environmental Sciences, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, 26666, United Arab Emirates
| | - Khalid Mohammed Khan
- H. E. J. Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Institute for Research and Medical Consultations (IRMC), Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam, 31441, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Naveed Ahmed Khan
- Department of Biology, Chemistry and Environmental Sciences, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, 26666, United Arab Emirates.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
|