The Green Infrastructure in Cities as A Tool for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation: Slovakian and Polish Experiences

Proposed solutions to anthropogenic climate change: A systematic literature review and a new way forward

Humanity is now facing what may be the biggest challenge to its existence: irreversible climate change brought about by human activity. Our planet is in a state of emergency, and we only have a short window of time (7-8 years) to enact meaningful change. The goal of this systematic literature review is to summarize the peer-reviewed literature on proposed solutions to climate change in the last 20 years (2002-2022), and to propose a framework for a unified approach to solving this climate change crisis. Solutions reviewed include a transition toward use of renewable energy resources, reduced energy consumption, rethinking the global transport sector, and nature-based solutions. This review highlights one of the most important but overlooked pieces in the puzzle of solving the climate change problem - the gradual shift to a plant-based diet and global phaseout of factory (industrialized animal) farming, the most damaging and prolific form of animal agriculture. The gradual global phaseout of industrialized animal farming can be achieved by increasingly replacing animal meat and other animal products with plant-based products, ending government subsidies for animal-based meat, dairy, and eggs, and initiating taxes on such products. Failure to act will ultimately result in a scenario of irreversible climate change with widespread famine and disease, global devastation, climate refugees, and warfare. We therefore suggest an "All Life" approach, invoking the interconnectedness of all life forms on our planet. The logistics for achieving this include a global standardization of Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) or similar measures and the introduction of a regulatory body for verification of such measures. These approaches will help deliver environmental and sustainability benefits for our planet far beyond an immediate reduction in global warming.

Health and wellbeing implications of adaptation to flood risk

Adaptation strategies to ameliorate the impacts of climate change are increasing in scale and scope around the world, with interventions becoming a part of daily life for many people. Though the implications of climate impacts for health and wellbeing are well documented, to date, adaptations are largely evaluated by financial cost and their effectiveness in reducing risk. Looking across different forms of adaptation to floods, we use existing literature to develop a typology of key domains of impact arising from interventions that are likely to shape health and wellbeing. We suggest that this typology can be used to assess the health consequences of adaptation interventions more generally and argue that such forms of evaluation will better support the development of sustainable adaptation planning.

Human-Nature Interactions during and after the COVID-19 Pandemic in Moscow, Russia: Exploring the Role of Contact with Nature and Main Lessons from the City Responses

Urban green spaces (UGS) as essential elements of the urban environment provide multiple ecosystem services including benefits for physical and mental health. Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and related restrictions have influenced human relationships with nature. Based on empirical research, this article explores the pathways and implications of human-nature interactions during and after COVID-19 and how human health and well-being could be supported by contact with nature. The article discusses the reasons that attract people to visit UGS (value of UGS, their perceptions, ways of contact with urban nature, etc.). It also analyses the effects of social isolation on the usage and perception of UGS during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. The research revealed current needs for UGS and their role in adaptation of urban development and greening strategy. For this purpose, an online questionnaire survey among residents of Moscow was conducted in April–July of 2020 when restrictive measures were imposed in the city in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, non-participatory observations and photo documentation were used to supplement the data on UGS visitation and use. The GIS mapping method was applied to analyze the UGS provision (availability and accessibility of UGS). Moreover, expert interviews were conducted aiming to explore the implications of the COVID-19 pandemic on the urban fabric and life of the citizens. The aim was to reveal the main tendencies that can be used in the adaptation of urban development plans, especially regarding UGS and human-nature interactions. The results show that citizens (both survey respondents and experts) highly value urban nature as a tool for coping with COVID-19 challenges. They underlined a need for accessible UGS, most notably for breathing fresh air, reducing stress, relaxing, and observing and enjoying nature. The survey also revealed the particular health effects resulting from the reduction of UGS visitations due to COVID-19 restrictions. Several changes in human-nature interactions were also observed: many respondents especially missed spending time outdoors and meeting other people. That highlights the fact that while UGS normally provides places for social integration and socializing, during the COVID-19 isolation UGS were especially valued in regard to physical health and well-being (self-recovery). Both respondents and experts expressed their opinions regarding the future development of UGS network and how the UGS’s structure and design should be adapted to the current challenges. The claimed interests/preferences included the need for providing all residents equal access to UGS in a time of pandemics and post pandemics. A set of limitations and directions for future research of UGS was suggested.

Exploring urban green packages as part of Nature-based Solutions for climate change adaptation measures in rapidly growing cities of the Global South

Given a lot of elusive information on the use and implementation of Nature-based Solutions (NbS) in the Global South, this review provides a synthesis of the evidence on the: - (1) distribution of urban green technologies in form of arboriculture and urban agriculture as a part of NbS packages for the sustainability of cities against population growth and impact of climate change; and (2) options of integrating and mainstreaming various NbS packages into city development policies, planning processes, and decision-making agendas. The sustainability of urban green as part of NbS packages and the usefulness for improvement of livelihoods is determined by the spatial (geographical location) and temporal (time of action) scales, and socio-ecological and institutional factors. Various NbS packages have shown the ability for use as climate change adaptation measures throughout the world. These functions include protection from soil erosion, protection from inland flooding, buffering natural resources against drier and more variable climates, protection from coastal hazards and sea-level rise, moderation of urban heatwaves and effects of heat island, and managing storm-water and flooding in urban areas. Furthermore, the benefits of urban agriculture and arboriculture include use as sources of food and generation of income; improve recreation and social interactions, and the sustainability of biodiversity. They also mitigate the impact of environmental pollution and climate change through reduction of gas emissions and act as carbon sinks. While the starting capital and lack of policy on urban agriculture and arboriculture in many countries, the importance of the industry is inevitably a useful agenda especially in the Global South due to vulnerability to the impact of climate change. This review also suggests the inclusion of all institutions, governments, and relevant stakeholders to emphasize gender sensitization at all levels of planning and decision-making in food production and adaptation measures to climate change.

Investing in Urban Blue–Green Infrastructure—Assessing the Costs and Benefits of Stormwater Management in a Peri-Urban Catchment in Oslo, Norway

Cities are challenged by climate change impacts, such as extreme rainfall events that affect conventional urban water management systems via increased sewage water overflows resulting in water quality deterioration and urban floods causing infrastructure damage. Investments in blue–green infrastructure (BGI) are increasingly considered to address these issues. However, these should be cost-effective. In this study, the effectiveness of five different BGI strategies and one grey strategy are assessed for a peri-urban catchment area in Oslo (Grefsen) using a cost–benefit analysis. The strategies include (i) wadis; (ii) green roofs; (iii) raingardens, rain barrels and wadis; (iv) infiltration crates; (v) water squares, and (vi) a separate sewage system. Besides economic effectiveness, the study also aims to identify the proper protection level by comparing cost–benefit ratios and net benefits for 60-min rainfall events occurring once every 5, 20, and 100 years (M5, M20, and M100), concerning both the current situation and under future climate change (using the Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5). The analyses revealed the highest BC ratios for wadis (12.0–17.3), separate sewage systems (7.7–15.1), and a combination of raingardens, rain barrels, and wadis (1.6–2.3). Strategies dimensioned for less frequent but more intensive rainfall events yielded higher BC ratios. Results for infiltration crates were difficult to interpret and were found to be very sensitive to input parameters. The other strategies implied a negative BC ratio. The study concludes that investments in BGI in Grefsen, Oslo, can be positively judged from a social–economic perspective and provide suitable information for water-related decision makers to decide upon the strategy selection and the appropriate flood protection level.

A data management framework for strategic urban planning using blue-green infrastructure

Spatial planning of Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI) should ideally be based on well-evaluated and context specific solutions. One important obstacle to reach this goal relates to adequate provisioning of data to ensure good governance of BGI, i.e., appropriate planning, design, construction, and maintenance. This study explores the gap between data availability and implementation of BGI in urban planning authorities in Sweden. A multi method approach including brainstorming, semi-structured interviews with urban planners and experts on BGI and Geographical Information System (GIS), and validating workshops were performed to develop a framework for structured and user-friendly data collection and use. Identified challenges concern data availability, data management, and GIS knowledge. There is a need to improve the organisation of data management and the skills of trans-disciplinary cooperation to better understand and interpret different types of data. Moreover, different strategic goals require different data to ensure efficient planning of BGI. This calls for closer interactions between development of strategic political goals and data collection. The data management framework consists of three parts: A) Ideal structure of data management in relation to planning process, data infrastructure and organisational structure, and B) A generic list of data needed, and C) The development of structures for data gathering and access. We conclude that it is essential to develop pan-municipal data management systems that bridge sectors and disciplines to ensure efficient management of the urban environment, and which is able to support the involvement of citizens to collect and access relevant data. The framework can assist in such development.

Exploring Pattern of Green Spaces (GSs) and Their Impact on Climatic Change Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies: Evidence from a Saudi Arabian City

Green spaces (GSs) are significant, nature-based solutions to climate change and have immense potential to reduce vulnerability to heat waves while enhancing the resilience of urban areas in the light of climate change. However, in the Saudi context, the availability of GSs across cities and their perceived role in climate change mitigations and adaptation strategies remain unexplored. This study aimed to examine the per capita availability of GSs in the Jeddah megacity in Saudi Arabia, and their role in climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies. This study assessed the per capita availability of GS in Jeddah city using GIS techniques, and a questionnaire survey (online and an onsite) was conducted to assess the GSs users’ perception of the role of GSs on climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies. Non-parametric tests were also used to find differences in roles based on socio-demographic attributes. The findings of the study revealed that: (i) the per capita availability of GS in Jeddah is relatively low in comparison to international organization recommendations (such as World Health Organization and European Union). As per the survey result, it was reported that GSs play crucial role for climate change mitigation such as temperature regulation, reduction in heat stress, enhancement outdoor thermal comfort, and the maintenance of air quality. More than 85% of the total respondents agreed with the very high importance of GSs for climate change mitigation. More than 80% of respondents in the city highly agreed with climate change adaptation strategies such as the enhancement of accessibility to GSs, ecosystem-based protection of GSs, and the improvement of per capita availability of GSs. The findings of the study will be very helpful to planners and policymakers in implementing nature-based solutions to reduce vulnerability to climate change in Jeddah city, and particularly other cities in a desert environment.

Effects of Densification on Urban Microclimate—A Case Study for the City of Vienna

Climate adaptation, mitigation, and protecting strategies are becoming even more important as climate change is intensifying. The impacts of climate change are especially tangible in dense urban areas due to the inherent characteristics of urban structure and materiality. To assess impacts of densification on urban climate and potential adaptation strategies a densely populated Viennese district was modeled as a typical sample area for the city of Vienna. The case study analyzed the large-scale densification potential and its potential effects on microclimate, air flow, comfort, and energy demand by developing 3D models of the area showing the base case and densification scenarios. Three methods were deployed to assess the impact of urban densification: Micro-climate analysis (1) explored urban heat island phenomena, wind pattern analysis (2) investigated ventilation and wind comfort at street level, and energy and indoor climate comfort analysis (3) compared construction types and greening scenarios and analyzed their impact on the energy demand and indoor temperatures. Densification has negative impacts on urban microclimates because of reducing wind speeds and thus weakening ventilation of street canyons, as well as accelerating heat island effects and associated impact on the buildings. However, densification also has daytime cooling effects because of larger shaded areas. On buildings, densification may have negative effects especially in the new upper, sun-exposed floors. Construction material has less impact than glazing area and rooftop greening. Regarding adaptation to climate change, the impacts of street greening, green facades, and green roofs were simulated: The 24-h average mean radiant temperature (MRT) at street level can be reduced by up to 15 K during daytime. At night there is only a slight reduction by a few tenths of 1 K MRT. Green facades have a similar effect on MRT reduction, while green roofs show only a slight reduction by a few tenths of 1 K MRT on street level. The results show that if appropriate measures were applied, negative effects of densification could be reduced, and positive effects could be achieved.

Residents’ Preferences and Perceptions toward Green Open Spaces in an Urban Area

Green open space is an important part of the natural–social ecosystem, providing ecological services that maintain the healthy development of cities and society. Residents’ perceptions of these benefits are largely related to their social-economic background as well as their familiarity with the development of green open spaces in their neighborhoods. Understanding residents’ perceptions of green open space will contribute significantly to urban planning by providing practical information that facilitates residents’ needs. Using the urban development zone (UDZ) of Wuhan, this study aims to understand residents’ preference toward green open space and their perceptions of ecological services and improvement, with the focus on the linking between social factors, preference, and views. In this study, data are collected through online questionnaire surveys and interviews. The results demonstrate how respondents’ views vary and which social factors significantly relate to them. Significant changes in natural space changes are reflected in the public’s perception of the ecological functions of these spaces. Responses to improving green open space reflect the residents’ pursuit of natural affinity and practicality. We conclude that it is better to enhance public involvement by providing residents’ views, which helps to recognize actual needs in long-term green open space planning.

Nature-Based Solutions for Water Management in Peri-Urban Areas: Barriers and Lessons Learned from Implementation Experiences

Nature-based solutions (NBS) are defined by the European Commission as “actions that are inspired by, supported by, or copied from nature…” and that solve societal challenges and multiple benefits. As a result, NBS are often promoted as alternative responses that solve complex societal challenges such as watershed management, while delivering a systemic approach of multiple benefits for well-being, human health, and sustainable use of resources. Despite rising interest in NBS, further identification of experiences implementing NBS could advance our understanding of the operationalization of this comprehensive concept. For this purpose, we analyzed 35 peer-reviewed articles on implementation experiences of NBS for water management in peri-urban areas, on aspects related to (i) NBS problem–solution: water challenges, ecosystem services, scales, and types; (ii) NBS governance and management. From the insights of the analysis, this paper asks what lessons are learned, and which barriers are identified, from implementing NBS for water management in peri-urban areas? As a result, this study presents a detailed analysis of each aspect. We conclude by highlighting accountancy, monitoring, and communication as potential success factors for integration and development while diminishing the overall barrier of complexity, which leads to technical, institutional, economic, and social uncertainty.

The “PV Rooftop Garden”: Providing Recreational Green Roofs and Renewable Energy as a Multifunctional System within One Surface Area

In urban areas, summer temperatures are continuously increasing, and cities are aiming at implementing measures to mitigate the urban heat island (UHI) effect. Reducing sealed surfaces and adding plants have been shown to be beneficial for urban microclimates. Green roofs are thus a viable alternative to standard roofs made out of materials that completely seal the top layer. However, roofs are, at the same time, also ideal for the integration of photovoltaics (PVs), as they are mostly unshaded. With both applications competing for the same surface area, solutions must be found that symbiotically combine the benefits of vegetation and renewable energy. Using an interdisciplinary study, various designs were developed for prototypical applications to integrate PV systems into rooftop gardens, with a specific focus on retrofitting flat roofs. The prototypes were analyzed and tested based on structural design aspects, suitable plant choices, and energy output. The results showed that the concurrent integration of PVs and green roofs into the same surface area can be achieved with lightweight construction, which is particularly suitable for existing buildings. The system can contribute to much-needed urban renewable energy generation, the mitigation of the UHI effect, and the provision of recreational spaces.