Effects of Resistance Circuit-Based Training on Body Composition, Strength and Cardiorespiratory Fitness: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Efficacy of Concurrent Training in Breast Cancer Survivors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Physical, Psychological, and Biomarker Variables

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer treatments often cause serious side effects, but physical exercise has shown the potential to improve both the physical and psychological health outcomes of survivors. This review and meta-analysis aimed to synthesize and analyze the scientific evidence on the effectiveness of concurrent training on physical, psychological, and biomarkers variables on breast cancer survivors.; Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42024571851). The ISI Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus databases were searched. The methodological quality of all the included studies was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias tool. This review included 14 articles that met the inclusion criteria on the effect of concurrent training on breast cancer survivors.

RESULTS

The results of the meta-analysis on body composition revealed a significant overall effect on body mass (effect size [ES] = -2.23; 95% CI: -4.16, -0.29) and body mass index (ES = -0.66; 95% CI: -1.32, 0.01). In contrast, no significant differences were shown in the % fat mass (ES = -2.63; 95% CI: -5.58, 0.33). Strength significantly improved after simultaneous training (ES = 4.93; 95% CI: 1.94, 7.92). In addition, cardiorespiratory fitness (maximum oxygen consumption) showed significant improvements after simultaneous training (ES = 3.03; 95% CI: 1.88, 4.19).

CONCLUSIONS

The research shows that concurrent training, including strength and aerobic exercises, promotes significant improvements in body mass, body mass index, muscle strength, and cardiorespiratory fitness. However, the effectiveness of the training depends on the intensity, duration and frequency of the exercise, as well as the individualization of the programs.

Unraveling the link between cardiorespiratory fitness and cancer: a state-of-the-art review

Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) not only reflects an individual's capacity to perform physical activities but also encapsulates broader effects on the basic biology of aging. This review aims to summarize the evidence on the influence of CRF on overall and site-specific cancer risks. It delves into the biological mechanisms through which CRF may exert its effects, explores the clinical implications of these findings, identifies gaps in the current evidence base, and suggests directions for future research. The synthesis of findings reveals that higher CRF levels (general threshold of > 7 METs) are consistently associated with a reduced risk of a range of cancers, including head and neck, lung, breast, gastrointestinal, particularly pancreatic and colorectal, bladder, overall cancer incidence and mortality, and potentially stomach and liver, bile duct, and gall bladder cancers. These inverse associations between CRF and cancer risk do not generally differ across age groups, sex, race, or adiposity, suggesting a universal protective effect of CRF. Nonetheless, evidence linking CRF with skin, mouth and pharynx, kidney, and endometrial cancers is limited and inconclusive. Conversely, higher CRF levels may be potentially linked to an increased risk of prostate cancer and hematological malignancies, such as leukemia and myeloma, although the evidence is still not conclusive. CRF appears to play a significant role in reducing the risk of several cancers through various biological mechanisms, including inflammation reduction, immune system enhancement, hormonal regulation, and metabolic improvements. Overall, enhancing CRF through regular physical activity offers a vital, accessible strategy for reducing cancer risk and extending the health span. Future research should aim to fill the existing evidence gaps regarding specific cancers and elucidate the detailed dose-response relationships between CRF levels and cancer risk. Studies are also needed to elucidate the causal relationships and mechanistic pathways linking CRF to cancer outcomes.

A systematic review of physical activity and nutritional interventions for the management of normal weight and overweight obesity

AIMS

Normal Weight Obesity (NWO) and Overweight Obesity (OWO) are prevalent conditions, yet knowledge of management is limited. This review aims to assess the effectiveness of physical activity and nutritional interventions in the management of NWO and OWO (together defined as BMI <30 kg/m2 with raised body fat).

DATA SYNTHESIS

Clinical trials including any physical activity or nutritional interventions, published between 2012 and 2022, evaluating body fat change were selected. Seven trials met inclusion criteria, including one single arm intervention, and six RCTs. A high intensity interval training intervention (high risk of bias) had the largest effect on reducing percentage body fat (MD: -6.8%, SE: 0.06). High protein intake interventions were also found to be effective (MD: -2.8%, SE: 0.27, MD: -2.0%, SE: 0.05). These three interventions led to greater increases in fat free mass. Two energy restricted interventions resulted in the highest mean weight loss (MD: -3.10 kg, SD: 0.87 (intervention only), MD: -2.90 kg, SE: 0.06), but also loss of fat free mass, resulting in low reductions in percentage body fat (MD: -1.10%, SD: 0.57 (intervention only), MD: -0.8%, SE 0.30). There was considerable heterogeneity between studies.

CONCLUSIONS

There are physical activity and nutritional interventions that could be efficacious for the management of NWO and OWO. However, there was considerable heterogeneity between studies. The most promising nutritional intervention is high protein intake and the least is energy restriction (without increased protein intake). More high-quality trials are needed to evaluate interventions, and to determine the best tools to measure adiposity.

Does resistance training ameliorate cancer-related fatigue in cancer survivors? A systematic review with meta-analysis

PURPOSE

Cancer-related fatigue (CRF) is unrelenting. As neither rest nor sleep ameliorates cognitive, emotional, and physical symptoms, quality of life is diminished. This study examines resistance training (RT) effectiveness on CRF in cancer survivors. The secondary aims were to identify the dose-response relationship of RT frequency, intensity, and volume on CRF in different cancer survivor populations.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Systematic searches via numerous databases for RCTs were performed in June 2022. Patient-reported outcome measures (PROM), were analysed, pre-to-post intervention, using a random-effects model. The Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale informed methodological quality assessment.

RESULTS

Eight studies were included (cancer survivors: breast (BCS) = 5; endometrial (ECS) = 1; prostate (PCS) = 2). Overall, RT interventions ≥ 6 weeks elicited large significant reductions in CRF for FACIT-F (SMD = 0.932, p = <0.001) and moderate significant reductions in CRF for PFS-R (SMD = -0.622, p = 0.004).

CONCLUSION

Main findings indicate that RT ameliorates CRF, especially in BCS; however, individualised approaches should be advocated. Supervised training elicited the greatest positive outcomes, thus should be a pivotal part of the cancer rehabilitation pathway. Future studies should be adequately powered, undertake discrete analyses of different cancer types, and investigate chronic RT effects.

Comparison Between Traditional and Alternated Resistance Exercises on Blood Pressure, Acute Neuromuscular Responses, and Rating of Perceived Exertion in Recreationally Resistance-Trained Men

ABSTRACT

Corrêa Neto, VG, Silva, DdN, Palma, A, de Oliveira, F, Vingren, JL, Marchetti, PH, da Silva Novaes, J, and Monteiro, ER. Comparison between traditional and alternated resistance exercises on blood pressure, acute neuromuscular responses, and rating of perceived exertion in recreationally resistance-trained men. J Strength Cond Res 38(5): e211-e218, 2024-The purpose of this study was to compare the acute effects of traditional and alternated resistance exercises on acute neuromuscular responses (maximum repetition performance, fatigue index, and volume load), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and blood pressure (BP) in resistance-trained men. Fifteen recreationally resistance-trained men (age: 26.40 ± 4.15 years; height: 173 ± 5 cm, and total body mass: 78.12 ± 13.06 kg) were recruited and performed all 3 experimental conditions in a randomized order: (a) control (CON), (b) traditional (TRT), and (c) alternated (ART). Both conditions (TRT and ART) consisted of 5 sets of bilateral bench press, articulated bench press, back squat, and Smith back squat exercises at 80% 1RM until concentric muscular failure. The total number of repetitions performed across sets in the bench press followed a similar pattern for TRT and ART, with significant reductions between sets 3, 4, and 5 compared with set 1 (p < 0.05). There was a significant difference for set 4 between conditions with a lower number of repetitions performed in the TRT. The volume load was significantly higher for ART when compared with TRT. TRT showed significant reductions in BP after 10-, 40-, and 60-minute postexercise and when compared with CON after 40- and 60-minute postexercise. However, the effect size illustrated large reductions in systolic BP during recovery in both methods. Thus, it is concluded that both methods reduced postexercise BP.

Effects of 12-week Circuit Exercise Intervention on Blood Pressure, Vascular Function, and Inflammatory Cytokines in Obese Older Women with Sarcopenia

Background

This study investigates the effects of a 12-week circuit exercise program on blood pressure, vascular function, and inflammatory cytokines in older obese women with sarcopenia.

Methods

Twenty-eight older obese women with sarcopenia (mean age: 78.2 ± 3.7 years) were randomly divided into an exercise group (EG, n = 14) and a control group (CG, n = 14). The EG participated in a 12-week circuit exercise training regimen, conducted three times weekly, with each session lasting between 45 to 75 minutes (progressively increased over time). The CG was advised to maintain their regular daily routines throughout the intervention period. All dependent variables, including blood pressure, vascular function, and inflammation cytokines, were evaluated pre- and post-intervention.

Results

Positive changes were observed in the EG in body composition (body fat mass; p < 0.001, body fat percentage; p < 0.01, free-fat mass; p < 0.01), blood pressure (heart rate; p < 0.05, rate pressure product; p < 0.01), vascular function (brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity; p < 0.05, flow-mediated dilation; p < 0.001), and inflammation cytokines (interleukin-6; p < 0.05). In the CG, there was an increase in body fat mass (p < 0.05) and body fat percentage (p < 0.05), while no changes were observed in other variables.

Conclusions

The 12-week circuit exercise program significantly reduced blood pressure, improved vascular function, and decreased inflammatory cytokines in obese older women with sarcopenia. However, individual variations in response highlight the need for personalized exercise regimens.

Pumping up the Fight against Multiple Sclerosis: The Effects of High-Intensity Resistance Training on Functional Capacity, Muscle Mass, and Axonal Damage

BACKGROUND

Resistance training (RT) has been recognized as a beneficial non-pharmacological intervention for multiple sclerosis (MS) patients, but its impact on neurodegeneration is not fully understood. This study aimed to investigate the effects of high-intensity RT on muscle mass, strength, functional capacity, and axonal damage in MS patients.

METHODS

Eleven relapsing-remitting MS patients volunteered in this within-subject counterbalanced intervention study. Serum neurofilament light-chain (NfL) concentration, vastus lateralis thickness (VL), timed up-and-go test (TUG), sit-to-stand test (60STS), and maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) were measured before and after intervention. Participants performed 18 sessions of high-intensity RT (70-80% 1-RM) over 6 weeks.

RESULTS

Significant (p < 0.05) differences were observed post-intervention for VL (ES = 2.15), TUG (ES = 1.98), 60STS (ES = 1.70), MVIC (ES = 1.78), and NfL (ES = 1.43). Although moderate correlations between changes in VL (R = 0.434), TUG (R = -0.536), and MVIC (R = 0.477) and changes in NfL were observed, only the correlation between VL and MVIC changes was significant (R = 0.684, p = 0.029).

CONCLUSIONS

A 6-week RT program significantly increased muscle mass, functional capacity, and neuromuscular function while also decreasing serum NfL in MS patients. These results suggest the effectiveness of RT as a non-pharmacological approach to mitigate neurodegeneration while improving functional capacity in MS patients.

The Effect of Resistance Training with Outdoor Fitness Equipment on the Body Composition, Physical Fitness, and Physical Health of Middle-Aged and Older Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial

This study examined the effect of outdoor-fitness-equipment-based resistance training on the health parameters of middle-aged and older adults, as well as analyzing the effect of age on the results found. A total of 149 volunteers were randomly assigned to the training (TG) and control (CG) groups. The TG performed two weekly sessions of resistance training for 8 weeks using outdoor fitness equipment, while the CG continued with their regular daily activities. Body composition was measured using DXA, and the maximal isometric voluntary contraction in knee extension, elbow flexion, and hand grip were assessed, along with the 4 m walk test, the Timed Up and Go Test, and the Short Form 36 Health Survey Questionnaire. The TG showed a significant increase in the lean mass index (p = 0.002) and maximal isometric voluntary contraction in both legs (p < 0.001) and arms (p < 0.001), as well as in physical functioning (p < 0.001) and the role physical dimension (p = 0.006) of the Short Form 36 Health Survey Questionnaire, compared to the CG, which showed a decrease in all these variables. In addition, the TG showed a greater decrease in fat mass (p < 0.001), fat mass index (p = 0.003), and the Timed Up and Go Test (p < 0.001) than the CG. Age conditioned the evolution of most of the variables analyzed (p < 0.05). In conclusion, resistance training with outdoor fitness equipment may be useful for improving the health of middle-aged and older adults, although age is a factor that could influence the adaptations found.

Basis of preventive and non-pharmacological interventions in asthma

Asthma is one of the most common atopic disorders in all stages of life. Its etiology is likely due to a complex interaction between genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. Due to this, different non-pharmacological interventions can be implemented to reduce or alleviate the symptoms caused by this disease. Thus, the present narrative review aimed to analyze the preventive and non-pharmacological interventions such as physical exercise, physiotherapy, nutritional, ergonutritional, and psychological strategies in asthma treatment. To reach these aims, an extensive narrative review was conducted. The databases used were MedLine (PubMed), Cochrane (Wiley), Embase, PsychINFO, and CinAhl. Asthma is an immune-mediated inflammatory condition characterized by increased responsiveness to bronchoconstrictor stimuli. Different factors have been shown to play an important role in the pathogenesis of asthma, however, the treatments used to reduce its incidence are more controversial. Physical activity is focused on the benefits that aerobic training can provide, while physiotherapy interventions recommend breathing exercises to improve the quality of life of patients. Nutritional interventions are targeted on implement diets that prioritize the consumption of fruits and vegetables and supplementation with antioxidants. Psychological interventions have been proposed as an essential non-pharmacological tool to reduce the emotional problems associated with asthma.

Repetition Performance, Rating of Perceived Discomfort, and Blood Lactate Responses to Different Rest Interval Lengths in Single-Joint and Multijoint Lower-Body Exercise

ABSTRACT

Rosa, A, Coleman, M, Haun, C, Grgic, J, and Schoenfeld, BJ. Repetition performance, rating of perceived discomfort, and blood lactate responses to different rest interval lengths in single-joint and multijoint lower-body exercise. J Strength Cond Res 37(7): 1350-1357, 2023-The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of different rest interval lengths (RILs) on repetition performance, rating of discomfort, and blood lactate responses during lower-body single-joint and multijoint exercises. This study used a counterbalanced design where each subject performed the Smith machine back squat (BS) and leg extension (LE) using 3 different RIL configurations (1, 2, and 3 minutes) in a randomized fashion. Data collection occurred over the span of 3 separate days. Volunteers were randomly allocated to perform the independent variables (RILs and exercises) in 1 of 12 potential configurations. The initial session was allotted for familiarization with the rating of discomfort scale and 10 repetition maximum testing. The other 2 sessions involved training with the different configurations of RIL length using both the BS and LE. Randomization ensured that the BS was performed first in one of the training sessions and the LE was performed first in the other session. Results indicated that longer RILs had a small positive effect on repetition performance, with longer rest durations allowing for more repetitions compared with shorter durations. The largest difference in repetition performance between RILs was observed between 1 minute and 2-3 minutes rest; there were trivial differences in repetition performance between 2 and 3 minutes rest for both the BS and LE. Blood lactate levels were slightly higher with longer RILs. Overall, BS showed greater increases in blood lactate compared with LE, and these differences were magnified over time. Exercise selection and RIL both influenced rating of discomfort, with LE producing less discomfort than BS and longer RILs reducing perceived discomfort. Our findings suggest that RIL influences the repetition performance, blood lactate, and rating of discomfort responses between single-joint and multijoint exercises.

Effect of resistance circuit training on health-related physical fitness, plasma lipid, and adiponectin in obese college students

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of resistance circuit training on health-related physical fitness, plasma lipid and adiponectin in obese college students. Twenty male college students participated in this study and they were randomly divided into the sedentary group (SG, n=10) and the resistance circuit training group (RCG, n=10). The exercise group underwent the resistance circuit training program for 60 min 3 times a week for 12 weeks, while the sedentary group continued activities of daily living as usual. The levels of health-related fitness, blood lipid, and adiponectin were measured twice before and after the experiment. To analyze the statistically significance of collected data, Two-way repeated measure analysis of variance was used to determine the changes in the groups over the training period. A paired t-test was used to verify the difference within each group, and an independent t-test was used to verify the difference between the groups. In this study, the body composition including body fat mass, percent body fat and body mass index were significantly decreased in RCG compared to those in SG, and the health-related fitness showed a significant difference between RCG and SG. In addition, RCG positively modulated blood concentration of total cholesterol, triglycerides, high-density and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. However, plasma adiponectin concentration did not show any significant differences between the two groups. Therefore, the present data suggested that resistance circuit training might be regulator to improve health-related physical fitness and decrease the level of plasma lipid in obese male college students.

The Addition of High-Load Resistance Exercises to a High-Intensity Functional Training Program Elicits Further Improvements in Body Composition and Strength: A Randomized Trial

The current study aimed to examine the effects of adding specific high-load resistance exercises to a high-intensity functional training (HIFT) program on healthy adults’ physical fitness and body composition. Twenty recreationally active volunteers (30 ± 4 y, 12 females, 8 males) were randomly assigned to either a HIFT-control (HIFT-C, n = 10) or HIFT-power (HIFT-P, n = 10) group and trained three times per week for eight weeks. The HIFT-C protocol included four rounds of an 8-exercise circuit (30:15 s work: rest, 2 min rest after the second round). The exercises used were clean-and-press, box jump, TRX chest press, wall ball throws, burpees, repeated 10 m sprints, sumo squat-and-upright row, and abdominal crunches. The HIFT-P-group replaced TRX chest press with bench press and squat-and-upright row with squat, both at an intensity of 80% 1 RM. Before and after the intervention, participants underwent an evaluation of body composition, cardiorespiratory fitness, vertical jump, 1 RM bench press, and the maximum number of abdominal crunches in 1 min. In both groups, cardiorespiratory fitness, squat jump, countermovement jump, bench press 1 RM, and percent body fat improved significantly after the intervention (p < 0.050), while a trend towards significant time x group interaction was found for bench press 1 RM (p = 0.076), indicating a superiority of HIFT-P over HIFT-C. Muscle mass significantly increased by 3.3% in the HIFT-P group, while abdominal muscle endurance improved by 16.2% in the HIFT-C group (p < 0.050). Short-term HIFT resulted in improvements in whole-body cardiorespiratory and neuromuscular fitness and reduction of body fat. The addition of high-load resistance exercises was well tolerated and resulted in increased muscle mass and upper body maximal strength. HIFT-P programs can be suitable for individuals seeking to enhance muscle mass and physical fitness in a short time.

The Benefits of Resistance Training in Obese Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Physical activity is essential in acquiring healthy lifestyle behaviors in the early years of maturational development and preventing various diseases. Resistance training (RT) is fundamental for improving body composition and is increasingly recommended for obese adolescents. A systematic review and meta-analysis were performed to synthesize and analyze data on the effects of RT programs in this population, seeking to develop useful recommendations for health and sports professionals.

METHODS

A search was performed using four databases (Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and ScienceDirect). According to specific inclusion criteria, twenty-one studies were selected to evaluate the impact of RT on body mass index (BMI), body fat, waist circumference, muscle strength, insulin sensitivity, lean mass and cardiorespiratory fitness.

RESULTS

After the RT programs, the adolescents improved their muscle strength (SMD, 1.44; 95% CI: 0.76-2.12), cardiorespiratory fitness (SMD, 1.09; 95% CI: 0.15-2.04), BMI (SMD, 0.21; 95% CI: 0.07-0.35), waist circumference (SMD, 0.27; 95% CI: 0.06-0.47) and body fat (SMD, 0.20; 95% CI: 0.05-0.34). However, insulin sensitivity (SMD, 0.32; 95% CI: - 0.47 to 1.10) and lean mass (SMD, 0.12; 95% CI: - 0.06 to 0.31) did not reveal any changes. Different RT programs were used but it seems that 2-3 times/week ∼60 min/session of RT for 12 weeks should be recommended for positive changes.

CONCLUSIONS

RT seems to be effective when the objective is to improve muscle strength, cardiorespiratory fitness and can be an efficient strategy to reduce obesity in adolescents by reducing body fat, waist circumference and body mass index. PROSPERO Registration number: CRD42022333411.

The Impact of Resistance Exercise on Muscle Mass in Glioblastoma in Survivors (RESIST): Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial

Background

Glioblastoma is the most common primary brain malignancy in adults, accounting for approximately 48% of all brain tumors. Standard treatment includes radiation and temozolomide chemotherapy. Glioblastomas are highly vascular and can cause vasogenic brain edema and mass effect, which can worsen the neurologic symptoms associated with the disease. The steroid dexamethasone (DEX) is the treatment of choice to reduce vasogenic edema and intracranial pressure associated with glioblastoma. However high-dose DEX or long-term use can result in muscle myopathy in 10%-60% of glioblastoma patients, significantly reducing functional fitness and quality of life (QOL). There is a wealth of evidence to support the use of exercise as an adjuvant therapy to improve functional ability as well as help manage treatment-related symptoms. Specifically, resistance training has been shown to increase muscle mass, strength, and functional fitness in aging adults and several cancer populations. Although studies are limited, research has shown that exercise is safe and feasible in glioblastoma populations. However, it is not clear whether resistance training can be successfully used in glioblastoma to prevent or mitigate steroid-induced muscle myopathy and associated loss of function.

Objective

The primary purpose of this study is to establish whether an individualized circuit-based program will reduce steroid-induced muscle myopathy, as indicated by maintained or improved functional fitness for patients on active treatment and receiving steroids.

Methods

This is a 2-armed, randomized controlled trial with repeated measures. We will recruit 38 adult (≥18 years) patients diagnosed with either primary or secondary glioblastoma who are scheduled to receive standard radiation and concurrent and adjuvant temozolomide chemotherapy postsurgical debulking and received any dose of DEX through the neurooncology clinic and the Nova Scotia Health Cancer Center. Patients will be randomly allocated to a standard of care waitlist control group or standard of care + circuit-based resistance training exercise group. The exercise group will receive a 12-week individualized, group and home-based exercise program. The control group will be advised to maintain an active lifestyle. The primary outcome, muscle myopathy (functional fitness), will be assessed using the Short Physical Performance Battery and hand grip strength. Secondary outcome measures will include body composition, cardiorespiratory fitness, physical activity, QOL, fatigue, and cognitive function. All measures will be assessed pre- and postintervention. Participant accrual, exercise adherence, and safety will be assessed throughout the study.

Results

This study has been funded by the Canadian Cancer Society Atlantic Cancer Research Grant and the J.D. Irving Limited–Excellence in Cancer Research Fund (grant number 707182). The protocol was approved by the Nova Scotia Health and Acadia University’s Research Ethics Boards. Enrollment is anticipated to begin in March 2022.

Conclusions

This study will inform how individualized circuit-based resistance training may improve functional independence and overall QOL of glioblastoma patients.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrails.gov NCT05116137; https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05116137

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/37709

Does Heavy-Resistance Training Improve Mobility and Perception of Quality of Life in Older Women?

Regular physical exercise has shown great benefits in preventing age-related functional losses and in improving the perception of health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in older people. To optimize these benefits, it would be interesting to evaluate what type of exercise is better. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the effects of heavy-resistance training on mobility and HRQoL in older women. Forty healthy, untrained older women (60−75 years) were randomly assigned to three groups: circuit resistance training (CRT, n = 15), traditional resistance training (TRT, n = 15) or the control group (CG, n = 10). During the 12-week training period, both experimental groups performed training with heavy loads, twice a week. Before and after the training period, the Timed Up and Go test, as a proxy of mobility, and the perception of HRQoL were evaluated. TRT and CRT resulted in a statistically significant improvement in the Timed Up and Go test (−5.4 and −10.3%, respectively; p < 0.05), but only the improvement after CRT was significantly greater than changes in the CG (p < 0.001). Only CRT elicited improvements in several dimensions of the perception of the HRQoL questionnaire, such as: physical functioning (13%, p < 0.001), general health (8.1%; p = 0.048), vitality (17.7%; p < 0.001), role emotional (6.7%; p = 0.044) and physical component summary (6.3%; p = 0.001). The change in the CRT group was greater than in the CG (p < 0.001) in the physical functioning score. The present findings show that CRT might be a time- (and hence cost-) effective alternative to trigger multiple positive functional and psychological adaptations in older women.

The Effect of Periodization on Training Program Adherence

The present research aimed to study the effect of three different training periodization (traditional, reverse, and free training) on the aerobic performance, motivation, and adherence of physically active athletes. We analysed the adherence to three different periodization training programs: traditional, reverse, and free training periodization on the adherence of amateur triathletes. For this aim, the individual adherence, motivation, and aerobic performance time and heart rate (in a 1000 m running test) were evaluated before and after the completion of the three different 8-week periodization programs. The level of adherence to the reverse periodization was significantly higher than in traditional and free training. The number of dropouts in reverse and traditional periodization was similar but lower than in the free training. Finally, neither of the periodization programs improved aerobic performance and reverse training periodization decreased heart rate of participants in a 1000 m running test.