1
|
Mekala JR, Nalluri HP, Reddy PN, S B S, N S SK, G V S D SK, Dhiman R, Chamarthy S, Komaragiri RR, Manyam RR, Dirisala VR. Emerging trends and therapeutic applications of monoclonal antibodies. Gene 2024; 925:148607. [PMID: 38797505 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2024.148607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are being used to prevent, detect, and treat a broad spectrum of malignancies and infectious and autoimmune diseases. Over the past few years, the market for mAbs has grown exponentially. They have become a significant part of many pharmaceutical product lines, and more than 250 therapeutic mAbs are undergoing clinical trials. Ever since the advent of hybridoma technology, antibody-based therapeutics were realized using murine antibodies which further progressed into humanized and fully human antibodies, reducing the risk of immunogenicity. Some of the benefits of using mAbs over conventional drugs include a drastic reduction in the chances of adverse reactions, interactions between drugs, and targeting specific proteins. While antibodies are very efficient, their higher production costs impede the process of commercialization. However, their cost factor has been improved by developing biosimilar antibodies, which are affordable versions of therapeutic antibodies. Along with biosimilars, innovations in antibody engineering have helped to design bio-better antibodies with improved efficacy than the conventional ones. These novel mAb-based therapeutics are set to revolutionize existing drug therapies targeting a wide spectrum of diseases, thereby meeting several unmet medical needs. In the future, mAbs generated by applying next-generation sequencing (NGS) are expected to become a powerful tool in clinical therapeutics. This article describes the methods of mAb production, pre-clinical and clinical development of mAbs, approved indications targeted by mAbs, and novel developments in the field of mAb research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Janaki Ramaiah Mekala
- Department of Biotechnology, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation (KLEF), Vaddeswaram 522502, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA.
| | - Hari P Nalluri
- Department of Biotechnology, Vignan's (Deemed to be) University, Guntur 522213, AP, India
| | - Prakash Narayana Reddy
- Department of Microbiology, Dr. V.S. Krishna Government College, Visakhapatnam 530013, India
| | - Sainath S B
- Department of Biotechnology, Vikrama Simhapuri University, Nellore 524320, AP, India
| | - Sampath Kumar N S
- Department of Biotechnology, Vignan's (Deemed to be) University, Guntur 522213, AP, India
| | - Sai Kiran G V S D
- Santhiram Medical College and General Hospital, Nandyal, Kurnool 518501, AP, India
| | - Rohan Dhiman
- Laboratory of Mycobacterial Immunology, Department of Life Sciences, National Institute of Technology Rourkela-769008, India
| | - Sahiti Chamarthy
- Department of Biotechnology, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation (KLEF), Vaddeswaram 522502, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
| | - Raghava Rao Komaragiri
- Department of CSE, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation (KLEF), Vaddeswaram 522302, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
| | - Rajasekhar Reddy Manyam
- Amrita School of Computing, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amaravati Campus, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Vijaya R Dirisala
- Department of Biotechnology, Vignan's (Deemed to be) University, Guntur 522213, AP, India.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Mahdizade Ari M, Amini ME, Sholeh M, Zahedi Bialvaei A. The effect of polyclonal and monoclonal based antibodies as promising potential therapy for treatment of sepsis: A systematic review. New Microbes New Infect 2024; 60-61:101435. [PMID: 38860003 PMCID: PMC11163170 DOI: 10.1016/j.nmni.2024.101435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 03/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024] Open
Abstract
While mortality caused by sepsis remains an unsolved problem, studies showed conflicting results about effectiveness of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies in patients suffering sepsis. For this reason, this current study provides an update of review clinical randomized trial studies until March 2024. The main object of this study is to determine effects of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies on mortality rate and hospitalization of patients suffering sepsis. Search of Scopus, Web of science, EMBASE, PubMed and Cochrane were performed and randomized controlled trials which conducted in patients with septic shock or bacterial sepsis were included. Two reviewers assessed all searched trials for eligibility according to already defined criteria and did data collection and analyses afterwards. Present study showed monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies are a safe strategy with mild-to-moderate adverse effects. However, most studies indicate no significant change among inter-and intra-group comparison (p > 0.05) and further studies are needed, results showed an increase in survival rate, ventilator-and ICU-free days, resolve organ dysfunction, mediating inflammation related cytokines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marzie Mahdizade Ari
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Esmaeil Amini
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Sholeh
- Department of Bacteriology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abed Zahedi Bialvaei
- Microbial Biotechnology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Bivona G, Sammataro S, Ghersi G. Nucleic Acids-Based Biomarkers for Alzheimer's Disease Diagnosis and Novel Molecules to Treat the Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:7893. [PMID: 39063135 PMCID: PMC11277093 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25147893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2024] [Revised: 07/16/2024] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) represents the most common form of dementia and affects million people worldwide, with a high social burden and considerable economic costs. AD diagnosis benefits from a well-established panel of laboratory tests that allow ruling-in patients, along with FDG and amyloid PET imaging tools. The main laboratory tests used to identify AD patients are Aβ40, Aβ42, the Aβ42/Aβ40 ratio, phosphorylated Tau 181 (pTau181) and total Tau (tTau). Although they are measured preferentially in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), some evidence about the possibility for blood-based determination to enter clinical practice is growing up. Unfortunately, CSF biomarkers for AD and, even more, the blood-based ones, present a few flaws, and twenty years of research in this field did not overcome these pitfalls. The tale even worsens when the issue of treating AD is addressed due to the lack of effective strategies despite the many decades of attempts by pharmaceutic industries and scientists. Amyloid-based drugs failed to stop the disease, and no neuroinflammation-based drugs have been demonstrated to work so far. Hence, only symptomatic therapy is available, with no disease-modifying treatment on hand. Such a desolate situation fully justifies the active search for novel biomarkers to be used as reliable tests for AD diagnosis and molecular targets for treating patients. Recently, a novel group of molecules has been identified to be used for AD diagnosis and follow-up, the nuclei acid-based biomarkers. Nucleic acid-based biomarkers are a composite group of extracellular molecules consisting of DNA and RNA alone or in combination with other molecules, including proteins. This review article reports the main findings from the studies carried out on these biomarkers during AD, and highlights their advantages and limitations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Bivona
- Department of Biomedicine, Neurosciences and Advanced Diagnostics, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
| | - Selene Sammataro
- Department of Precision Medicine in Medical, Surgical and Critical Care (Me.Pre.C.C.), University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy;
| | - Giulio Ghersi
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy;
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Wang S, Zhu Z, Li J. Pharmacokinetic Analyses of a Lipid Nanoparticle-Encapsulated mRNA-Encoded Antibody against Rift Valley Fever Virus. Mol Pharm 2024; 21:1342-1352. [PMID: 38295278 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.3c01016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) could cause an emergency illness characterized by fever, muscle pain, and even death in humans or ruminants. However, there are no approved antiviral drugs that prevent or treat RVFV infection. While therapeutic antibodies have shown promising potential for prevention or treatment in several studies, many studies are ongoing, especially in the field of infectious diseases. Among these studies, the mRNA-LNP platform shows great potential for application, following the COVID-19 pandemic. Previously, we have obtained a neutralizing antibody against RVFV, which was named A38 protein and verified to have a high binding and neutralization ability. In this study, we aimed to identify an effectively optimized sequence and expressed the prioritized mRNA-encoded antibody in vitro. Notably, we effectively expressed mRNA-encoded protein and used the mRNA-LNP platform to generate A38-mRNA-LNP. Pharmacokinetic experiments were conducted in vivo and set up in two groups of mRNA-A38 group and A38 protein group, which were derived from mRNA-LNP and plasmid DNA-expressed proteins, respectively. A38-mRNA-LNPs were administrated by intramuscular injection, A38 proteins were administrated by intravenous administration, and their unique ability to maintain long-lasting protein concentrations by mRNA-encoded protein was demonstrated with the mRNA-encoded protein providing a longer circulating half-life compared to injection of the free A38 protein. These preclinical data on the mRNA-encoded antibody highlighted its potential to prevent infectious diseases in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Wang
- Institute of Bioengineering, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
- ZJU-Hangzhou Global Scientific and Technological Innovation Center, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 311215, China
| | - Ziling Zhu
- School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jianmin Li
- ZJU-Hangzhou Global Scientific and Technological Innovation Center, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 311215, China
- Laboratory of Vaccine and Antibody Engineering, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Weil-Olivier C, Salisbury D, Navarro-Alonso JA, Tzialla C, Zhang Y, Esposito S, Midulla F, Tenenbaum T. Immunization technologies: Time to consider new preventative solutions for respiratory syncytial virus infections. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2023; 19:2209000. [PMID: 37193673 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2023.2209000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023] Open
Abstract
New technologies for the prevention of infectious diseases are emerging to address unmet medical needs, in particular, the use of long-acting monoclonal antibodies (mAb) to prevent Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) lower respiratory tract disease in infants during their first RSV season. The lack of precedent for mAbs for broad population protection creates challenges in the assessment of upcoming prophylactic long-acting mAbs for RSV, with associated consequences in legislative and registration categorization, as well as in recommendation, funding, and implementation pathways. We suggest that the legislative and regulatory categorization of preventative solutions should be decided by the effect of the product in terms of its impact on the population and health-care systems rather than by the technology used or its mechanism of action. Immunization can be passive and active, both having the same objective of prevention of infectious diseases. Long-acting prophylactic mAbs work as passive immunization, as such, their recommendations for use should fall under the remit of National Immunization Technical Advisory Groups or other relevant recommending bodies for inclusion into National Immunization Programs. Current regulations, policy, and legislative frameworks need to evolve to embrace such innovative preventative technologies and acknowledge them as one of key immunization and public health tools.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - David Salisbury
- Programme for Global Health, Royal Institute of International Affairs, Chatham House, London, UK
| | | | - Chryssoula Tzialla
- Infectious Diseases Working Group, Italian Society of Neonatology, Neonatal and Pediatric Unit, P.O Oltrepò - ASST Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Yan Zhang
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Diseases Control and Prevention, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Susanna Esposito
- Pediatric Clinic, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Fabio Midulla
- Department of Maternal Science and Urology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Tobias Tenenbaum
- Sana Klinikum Lichtenberg, Clinic for Child and Adolescent Medicine, Academic Teaching Hospital Charité-Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Danchenko EA, Ertuzun IA, Bugaeva LI, Lebedeva SA, Denisova TD, Lavrova EB, Korzhova TM, Tarasov SA. Analysis of General Toxicity of Ergoferon. Bull Exp Biol Med 2023; 175:644-648. [PMID: 37861908 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-023-05918-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
For antibody-based drugs, it is important and relevant to study their toxic effects, which can often become limiting when prescribing this type of therapy. General toxicity of antiviral drug Ergoferon based on technologically processed antibodies was studied on sexually mature animals. Analysis of acute toxicity showed the absence of lethal outcomes when the drug was administered to adult rats at the maximum tolerated doses. In a study of repeated dose toxicity, no adverse effects of the drug were detected.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - I A Ertuzun
- LLC "MATERIA MEDICA HOLDING", Moscow, Russia
| | - L I Bugaeva
- Volgograd State Medical University, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Volgograd, Russia
| | - S A Lebedeva
- Volgograd State Medical University, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Volgograd, Russia
| | - T D Denisova
- Volgograd State Medical University, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Volgograd, Russia
| | - E B Lavrova
- Volgograd State Medical University, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Volgograd, Russia
| | - T M Korzhova
- Volgograd State Medical University, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Volgograd, Russia
| | - S A Tarasov
- LLC "MATERIA MEDICA HOLDING", Moscow, Russia.
- Laboratory of Physiologically Active Substances, Department of Molecular and Cellular Pathophysiology, Research Institute of General Pathology and Pathophysiology, Moscow, Russia.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Lista F, Peragallo MS, Biselli R, De Santis R, Mariotti S, Nisini R, D'Amelio R. Have Diagnostics, Therapies, and Vaccines Made the Difference in the Pandemic Evolution of COVID-19 in Comparison with "Spanish Flu"? Pathogens 2023; 12:868. [PMID: 37513715 PMCID: PMC10384375 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12070868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
In 1918 many countries, but not Spain, were fighting World War I. Spanish press could report about the diffusion and severity of a new infection without censorship for the first-time, so that this pandemic is commonly defined as "Spanish flu", even though Spain was not its place of origin. "Spanish flu" was one of the deadliest pandemics in history and has been frequently compared with the coronavirus disease (COVID)-19 pandemic. These pandemics share similarities, being both caused by highly variable and transmissible respiratory RNA viruses, and diversity, represented by diagnostics, therapies, and especially vaccines, which were made rapidly available for COVID-19, but not for "Spanish flu". Most comparison studies have been carried out in the first period of COVID-19, when these resources were either not yet available or their use had not long started. Conversely, we wanted to analyze the role that the advanced diagnostics, anti-viral agents, including monoclonal antibodies, and innovative COVID-19 vaccines, may have had in the pandemic containment. Early diagnosis, therapies, and anti-COVID-19 vaccines have markedly reduced the pandemic severity and mortality, thus preventing the collapse of the public health services. However, their influence on the reduction of infections and re-infections, thus on the transition from pandemic to endemic condition, appears to be of minor relevance. The high viral variability of influenza and coronavirus may probably be contained by the development of universal vaccines, which are not easy to be obtained. The only effective weapon still remains the disease prevention, to be achieved with the reduction of promiscuity between the animal reservoirs of these zoonotic diseases and humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Florigio Lista
- Istituto di Scienze Biomediche della Difesa, Ispettorato Generale della Sanità Militare, Stato Maggiore della Difesa, 00184 Roma, Italy
| | - Mario Stefano Peragallo
- Centro Studi e Ricerche di Sanità e Veterinaria, Comando Logistico dell'Esercito, 00184 Roma, Italy
| | - Roberto Biselli
- Ispettorato Generale della Sanità Militare, Stato Maggiore della Difesa, 00184 Roma, Italy
| | - Riccardo De Santis
- Istituto di Scienze Biomediche della Difesa, Ispettorato Generale della Sanità Militare, Stato Maggiore della Difesa, 00184 Roma, Italy
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica e Malattie Infettive, Sapienza, Università di Roma, 00161 Roma, Italy
| | - Sabrina Mariotti
- Dipartimento di Malattie Infettive, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Roma, Italy
| | - Roberto Nisini
- Dipartimento di Malattie Infettive, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Roma, Italy
| | - Raffaele D'Amelio
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Molecolare, Sapienza, Università di Roma, 00198 Roma, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Kharga K, Kumar L, Patel SKS. Recent Advances in Monoclonal Antibody-Based Approaches in the Management of Bacterial Sepsis. Biomedicines 2023; 11:biomedicines11030765. [PMID: 36979744 PMCID: PMC10045367 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11030765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Sepsis is a life-threatening condition characterized by an uncontrolled inflammatory response to an infectious agent and its antigens. Immune cell activation against the antigens causes severe distress that mediates a strong inflammatory response in vital organs. Sepsis is responsible for a high rate of morbidity and mortality in immunosuppressed patients. Monoclonal antibody (mAb)-based therapeutic strategies are now being explored as a viable therapy option for severe sepsis and septic shock. Monoclonal antibodies may provide benefits through two major strategies: (a) monoclonal antibodies targeting the pathogen and its components, and (b) mAbs targeting inflammatory signaling may directly suppress the production of inflammatory mediators. The major focus of mAb therapies has been bacterial endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide), although other surface antigens are also being investigated for mAb therapy. Several promising candidates for mAbs are undergoing clinical trials at present. Despite several failures and the investigation of novel targets, mAb therapy provides a glimmer of hope for the treatment of severe bacterial sepsis and septic shock. In this review, mAb candidates, their efficacy against controlling infection, with special emphasis on potential roadblocks, and prospects are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kusum Kharga
- School of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied Sciences and Biotechnology, Shoolini University, Solan 173229, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Lokender Kumar
- School of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied Sciences and Biotechnology, Shoolini University, Solan 173229, Himachal Pradesh, India
- Cancer Biology Laboratory, Raj Khosla Centre for Cancer Research, Shoolini University, Solan 173229, Himachal Pradesh, India
- Correspondence: (L.K.); (S.K.S.P.)
| | - Sanjay Kumar Singh Patel
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
- Correspondence: (L.K.); (S.K.S.P.)
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Beck S, Nakajima R, Jasinskas A, Abram TJ, Kim SJ, Bigdeli N, Tifrea DF, Hernandez-Davies J, Huw Davies D, Hedde PN, Felgner PL, Zhao W. A Protein Microarray-Based Respiratory Viral Antigen Testing Platform for COVID-19 Surveillance. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10092238. [PMID: 36140339 PMCID: PMC9496200 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10092238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Revised: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
High-throughput and rapid screening testing is highly desirable to effectively combat the rapidly evolving COVID-19 pandemic co-presents with influenza and seasonal common cold epidemics. Here, we present a general workflow for iterative development and validation of an antibody-based microarray assay for the detection of a respiratory viral panel: (a) antibody screening to quickly identify optimal reagents and assay conditions, (b) immunofluorescence assay design including signal amplification for low viral titers, (c) assay characterization with recombinant proteins, inactivated viral samples and clinical samples, and (d) multiplexing to detect a panel of common respiratory viruses. Using RT-PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 positive and negative pharyngeal swab samples, we demonstrated that the antibody microarray assay exhibited a clinical sensitivity and specificity of 77.2% and 100%, respectively, which are comparable to existing FDA-authorized antigen tests. Moreover, the microarray assay is correlated with RT-PCR cycle threshold (Ct) values and is particularly effective in identifying high viral titers. The multiplexed assay can selectively detect SARS-CoV-2 and influenza virus, which can be used to discriminate these viral infections that share similar symptoms. Such protein microarray technology is amenable for scale-up and automation and can be broadly applied as a both diagnostic and research tool.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sungjun Beck
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Rie Nakajima
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Algis Jasinskas
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | | | - Sun Jin Kim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Nader Bigdeli
- Student Health Center, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Delia F. Tifrea
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Jenny Hernandez-Davies
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - D. Huw Davies
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Per Niklas Hedde
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Laboratory for Fluorescence Dynamics, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Beckman Laser Institute and Medical Clinic, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Correspondence: (P.N.H.); (P.L.F.); (W.Z.)
| | - Philip L. Felgner
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Correspondence: (P.N.H.); (P.L.F.); (W.Z.)
| | - Weian Zhao
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Edwards Life Sciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Correspondence: (P.N.H.); (P.L.F.); (W.Z.)
| |
Collapse
|