Metabolic Syndrome and the Risk of Breast Cancer and Subtypes by Race, Menopause and BMI

Body mass index and altered lipid profile as major risk markers for breast cancer progression: a cross-sectional study of postmenopausal women in Pakistan

BACKGROUND

In Pakistan, the death rate for post-menopausal women with breast cancer is significant due to late detection and delayed referral to proper facilities. There are a few reports on Pakistan's epidemiology and breast cancer risk factors. There are modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors associated with the development of breast carcinoma; of which body mass index (BMI), central obesity, and lipid profile are considered as major risk markers.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional analytical study. A total of 384 women constituted the present study sample. Purposive sampling was used to collect 192 confirmed new breast cancer cases throughout the study. By using basic random sampling, an equal number of controls were chosen. Studied parameters included age, fasting blood sugar, cholesterol, triglyceride, serum high-density lipoprotein, cholesterol, serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, weight, height, BMI, waist circumference, and waist-to-hip ratio. The inclusion criteria of this study were post-menopausal women (45-65 years) in Pakistan. The confirmation of breast carcinoma was done through histopathology. Breast cancer occurrence was taken as a dependent variable, whereas BMI, central obesity, and lipid profile were taken as independent variables.

RESULTS

Studied risk factors (cholesterol, BMI, and central obesity) significantly correlated with breast cancer. Cholesterol has a significantly high positive correlation (0.646) with breast cancer. BMI has a positive significant correlation (0.491) with breast cancer, and central obesity has a low but positive significant correlation (0.266) with breast cancer. Moreover, the binary logistic regression model also showed a significant association between biochemical factors and breast cancer occurrence. Regression analysis depicted a linear relationship between a dependent variable (breast cancer occurrence) and independent variables (central obesity, cholesterol, BMI).

CONCLUSION

Postmenopausal overweight (central obesity), increased BMI and high cholesterol levels are major risk factors for breast cancer. Moreover, high total cholesterol proved to be the most significant risk marker for the occurrence of breast cancer in post-menopausal women of Pakistan.

A Qualitative Study of Knowledge of Metabolic Syndrome, Attitudes about Lifestyle Modifications, and Preferences for Lifestyle Interventions among Patients with Cancer and Metabolic Syndrome

Background

Nearly 60% of patients with cancer have metabolic syndrome, which increases the risk of mortality, but there is no clear guidance for oncology providers about its management. Here, we report on the qualitative component of a larger mixed methods study that aimed to understand cancer patients' knowledge, attitudes, and preferences regarding metabolic syndrome.

Methods

Adult cancer patients with metabolic syndrome were recruited during 2022-2023 in the MD Anderson General Internal Medicine clinic and participated in semistructured interviews focused on metabolic syndrome and lifestyle interventions. Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Participants' demographic information was collected. Interviews were analyzed using hybrid thematic analysis and constant comparison involving deductive and inductive coding. Researcher triangulation and debriefing were used to ensure rigor.

Results

There were 19 participants, 12 female and 12 White. Eighteen had solid tumors, including gynecologic (n = 5), genitourinary (n = 4), colorectal (n = 3), and breast (n = 2). Analysis yielded 5 major themes: 1) patients' understanding of metabolic syndrome; 2) attitudes about and approaches to managing metabolic syndrome; 3) capacity and limitations regarding managing metabolic syndrome; 4) patient-led care; and 5) tailored intervention plans. Participants had limited knowledge of metabolic syndrome and its cancer-related consequences; most desired additional education. Many participants reported that their cancer or diabetes diagnosis motivated them to prioritize lifestyle Modifications. Participants expressed strong interest in personalized care plans focused on healthy lifestyle rather than simply weight loss. As part of their tailored intervention plans, participants desired clear communication with their medical team, coordination of care among team members, and collaboration with providers about treatment decisions.

Conclusion

Cancer patients with metabolic syndrome want collaborative, patient-centered care. Shared decision-making based on respect for patients' distinctive needs and preferences is an essential component of the development of such collaborative care. Tailored interventions, practical implementation strategies, and personalized care plans are needed for cancer patients with metabolic syndrome. The study findings contribute to filling the gap in knowledge regarding clear guidance for oncology providers on managing metabolic syndrome and will inform the development of future lifestyle interventions for patients diagnosed with metabolic syndrome.

Serum cholesterol and the risk of developing hormonally driven cancers: A narrative review

Although cholesterol has been hypothesized to promote cancer development through several potential pathways, its role in the risk of developing hormonally driven cancer is controversial. This literature review summarizes evidence from the highest quality studies to examine the consistency and strength of the relationship between serum cholesterol parameters and incidence of hormonally driven cancer. Articles were identified using EMBASE. Longitudinal observational studies published between January 2000 and December 2020 were considered for inclusion. The endpoint of interest was incident prostate, ovary, breast, endometrium, and uterine cancers. In total, 2732 reports were identified and screened; 41 studies were included in the review. No associations were found for ovarian cancer. Most endometrial cancer studies were null. The majority (76.9%) of studies reported no association between cholesterol and prostate cancer. Data on breast cancer were conflicting, associations limited, and effect sizes modest. Our results do not provide evidence for a clear association between cholesterol and different types of incident, hormonally driven reproductive cancers. Future studies should investigate the impact of lipid-lowering therapy.

Metabolism of Selenium, Selenocysteine, and Selenoproteins in Ferroptosis in Solid Tumor Cancers

A potential target of precision nutrition in cancer therapeutics is the micronutrient selenium (Se). Se is metabolized and incorporated as the amino acid selenocysteine (Sec) into 25 human selenoproteins, including glutathione peroxidases (GPXs) and thioredoxin reductases (TXNRDs), among others. Both the processes of Se and Sec metabolism for the production of selenoproteins and the action of selenoproteins are utilized by cancer cells from solid tumors as a protective mechanism against oxidative damage and to resist ferroptosis, an iron-dependent cell death mechanism. Protection against ferroptosis in cancer cells requires sustained production of the selenoprotein GPX4, which involves increasing the uptake of Se, potentially activating Se metabolic pathways such as the trans-selenation pathway and the TXNRD1-dependent decomposition of inorganic selenocompounds to sustain GPX4 synthesis. Additionally, endoplasmic reticulum-resident selenoproteins also affect apoptotic responses in the presence of selenocompounds. Selenoproteins may also help cancer cells adapting against increased oxidative damage and the challenges of a modified nutrient metabolism that result from the Warburg switch. Finally, cancer cells may also rewire the selenoprotein hierarchy and use Se-related machinery to prioritize selenoproteins that are essential to the adaptations against ferroptosis and oxidative damage. In this review, we discuss both the evidence and the gaps in knowledge on how cancer cells from solid tumors use Se, Sec, selenoproteins, and the Se-related machinery to promote their survival particularly via resistance to ferroptosis.

A metabolomic analysis of adiposity measures and pre- and postmenopausal breast cancer risk in the Nurses' Health Studies

BACKGROUND

Adiposity is consistently positively associated with postmenopausal breast cancer and inversely associated with premenopausal breast cancer risk, though the reasons for this difference remain unclear.

METHODS

In this nested case-control study of 1649 breast cancer cases and 1649 matched controls from the Nurses' Health Study (NHS) and the NHSII, we selected lipid and polar metabolites correlated with BMI, waist circumference, weight change since age 18, or derived fat mass, and developed a metabolomic score for each measure using LASSO regression. Logistic regression was used to investigate the association between this score and breast cancer risk, adjusted for risk factors and stratified by menopausal status at blood draw and diagnosis.

RESULTS

Metabolite scores developed among only premenopausal or postmenopausal women were highly correlated with scores developed in all women (r = 0.93-0.96). Higher metabolomic adiposity scores were generally inversely related to breast cancer risk among premenopausal women. Among postmenopausal women, significant positive trends with risk were observed (e.g., metabolomic waist circumference score OR Q4 vs. Q1 = 1.47, 95% CI = 1.03-2.08, P-trend = 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Though the same metabolites represented adiposity in pre- and postmenopausal women, breast cancer risk associations differed suggesting that metabolic dysregulation may have a differential association with pre- vs. postmenopausal breast cancer.

Translation initiation and its relationship with metabolic mechanisms in cancer development, progression and chemoresistance

Pathways that regulate protein homeostasis (proteostasis) in cells range from mRNA processing to protein degradation; perturbations in regulatory mechanisms of these pathways can lead to oncogenic cellular processes. Protein synthesis modulation failures are common phenomena in cancer cells, wherein specific conditions that promote the translation of protein factors promoting carcinogenesis are present. These specific conditions may be favored by metabolic lipid alterations like those found in metabolic syndrome and obesity. Protein translation modifications have been described in obesity, favoring the translation of protein targets that benefit lipid accumulation; a determining factor is the activity of the cap-binding eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E), a crosstalk in protein translation and lipogenesis. Besides, alterations of protein translation initiation steps are critical participants for the development of both pathogenic conditions, cancer, and obesity. This chapter is focused on the regulation of recognition and processing of carcinogenic-mRNA and the connections among lipid metabolism and cell signaling pathways that promote oncogenesis, tumoral microenvironment generation and potentially the development of chemoresistance. We performed an in-depth analysis of events, such as those occurring in obesity and dyslipidemias, that may influence protein translation, driving the recognition of certain mRNAs and favoring cancer development and chemoresistance.

Effect of Serum Lipid Profile on the Risk of Breast Cancer: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 1,628,871 Women

Dyslipidemia has been linked to breast cancer incidence. The aim of the present meta-analysis was to further investigate the relationship between the serum lipid profile and breast cancer risk. Databases such as PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of Sciences were searched up to the end of January 2021 using certain MeSH and non-MeSH keywords and combinations to extract related published articles. Twenty-six prospective studies involving 1,628,871 women, of whom 36,590 were diagnosed with breast cancer during the follow-up period met the inclusion criteria. A negative and significant association was found between the HDL-C level and the risk of breast cancer (relative risk (RR): 0.85, 95% CI: 0.72–0.99, I²: 67.6%, p = 0.04). In contrast, TG (RR: 1.02, 95% CI: 0.91–1.13, I²: 54.2%, p = 0.79), total cholesterol (TC) (RR: 0.98, 95% CI: 0.90–1.06, I²: 67.2%, p = 0.57), apolipoprotein A (ApoA) (RR: 0.96, 95% CI: 0.70–1.30, I²: 83.5%, p = 0.78) and LDL-C (RR: 0.93, 95% CI: 0.79–1.09, I²: 0%, p = 0.386) were not associated with breast cancer development. In studies adjusting for hormone use and physical activity, breast cancer risk was positively correlated with TC (RR: 1.05, 95% CI: 1.01–1.10). Similarly, TG was significantly related to breast cancer development after adjustment for baseline lipids (RR: 0.92, 95% CI: 0.85–0.99) and race (any races mentioned in each study) (RR: 1.80, 95% CI: 1.22–2.65). In the present meta-analysis, HDL-C was inversely related to breast cancer risk. Overall, data on the links between lipids and breast cancer are conflicting. However, there is increasing evidence that low HDL-C is related to an increased risk for this type of malignancy.

Comorbidity patterns, family history and breast cancer risk: a latent class analysis

BACKGROUND

Limited evidence exists on how the presence of multiple conditions affects breast cancer (BC) risk.

METHODS

We used data from a network hospital-based case-control study conducted in Italy and Switzerland, including 3034 BC cases and 3392 controls. Comorbidity patterns were identified using latent class analysis on a set of specific health conditions/diseases. A multiple logistic regression model was used to derive ORs and the corresponding 95% CIs for BC according to the patterns, adjusting for several covariates. A second model was fitted including an additional effect of FH on the comorbidity patterns.

RESULTS

With respect to the 'healthy' pattern, the 'metabolic disorders' one reported an OR of 1.23 (95% CI 1.02 to 1.49) and the 'breast diseases' an OR of 1.86 (95% CI 1.23 to 2.83). The remaining two patterns reported an inverse association with BC, with ORs of 0.77, significant only for the 'hysterectomy, uterine fibroids and bilateral ovariectomy'. In the second model, FH was associated with an increased risk of the 'breast diseases' pattern (OR=4.09, 95% CI 2.48 to 6.74). Non-significant increased risk of the other patterns according to FH emerged.

CONCLUSION

We identified mutually exclusive patterns of comorbidity, confirming the unfavourable role of those related to metabolic and breast disorders on the risk of BC, and the protective effect of those related to common surgical procedures. FH reported an incremented risk of all the comorbidity patterns.

IMPACT

Identifying clusters of comorbidity in patients with BC may help understand their effects and enable clinicians and policymakers to better organise patient and healthcare management.

Sarcopenic obesity in early breast cancer patients with metabolic syndrome: a cross-sectional study

Aim: The importance of sarcopenic obesity (SO) in malignancy has recently been recognized. The authors aimed to investigate the clinical and body composition data of early-stage breast cancer (BC) patients by focusing on the components of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and SO. Methods: In this cross-sectional study with early-stage BC patients, the clinical and laboratory results were evaluated for diagnosing MetS. Bioimpedance analysis and muscle radiation attenuation (Hounsfield unit average calculation [HUAC]) using acquired computed tomography images were used to assess SO. Results: The age at diagnosis, BMI, visceral fat ratio, hemoglobin A1c and carcinoembryonic antigen levels in patients with MetS were significantly higher (p < 0.05). A cutoff value of 39.4 Hounsfield units was significantly related to MetS with 76.5% sensitivity and 62% specificity. The mean HUAC in patients with MetS (36.9) was significantly lower than in those without MetS (41.4; p = 0.017). Conclusion: HUAC value predicted SO in early-stage BC patients with MetS.

Metabolic Syndrome and Breast Cancer Molecular Subtypes: An Observational Patient Study

Background:

Breast cancer molecular subtypes share various prognostic profiles, and luminal A molecular subtypes have a better prognosis compared with other molecular subtypes. However, whether metabolic syndrome or individual risk factors of metabolic syndrome influence on the development of molecular subtype remains elusive. We aimed to assess the association between metabolic syndrome risk factors and breast cancer molecular subtypes among patients with metabolic syndrome in a clinical setting.

Methods:

In total, 101 breast cancer patients with mean age, 58.4 ± 8.5 years, and overt metabolic syndrome prospectively were recruited. Immunohistochemistry procedure was used to determine molecular subtypes. Assessment of clinical, biochemical, and anthropometric parameters was performed. Logistic regression analysis was used to assess the relationship between risk factors and breast cancer molecular subtypes categories. A similar approach was used to assess the relation between breast cancer molecular subtypes and menopause.

Results:

Comparison of metabolic syndrome individual risk factors according to breast cancer molecular subtypes no statistical difference was found for systolic (P = .33) and diastolic blood pressure (P = .17), fasting glucose (P = .77), triglycerides (P = .62), high-density lipoprotein (P = .33), body mass index (P = .87), and waist circumference (P = .81). A positive trend was found between high-density lipoprotein and HER2+. No association was found with other risk factors. Moreover, an association was found between HER2+ categories and menopause.

Conclusion:

In breast cancer patients with metabolic syndrome, we observed an increased trend between high-density lipoprotein and HER2+ molecular subtype, suggesting that underlying dyslipidemia may favor poor prognosis. HER2+ was associated with menopause which may influence further expression of HER2+ .

Metabolic Syndrome and Risk of Breast Cancer by Molecular Subtype: Analysis of the MEND Study

Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of biological irregularities that is a known risk factor for cardiovascular disease, stroke, and diabetes. In a case-control study of 555 West African women, we observed that metabolic syndrome was strongly associated with breast cancer and the aggressive triple-negative molecular subtype, highlighting a need for clinical and lifestyle interventions targeting metabolic syndrome to reduce breast cancer risk in this population.

Association of body composition with odds of breast cancer by molecular subtype: analysis of the Mechanisms for Established and Novel Risk Factors for Breast Cancer in Nigerian Women (MEND) study

BACKGROUND

The association between obesity and breast cancer (BC) has been extensively studied among US, European and Asian study populations, with often conflicting evidence. However, despite the increasing prevalence of obesity and associated conditions in Africa, the continent with the highest age-standardized BC mortality rate globally, few studies have evaluated this association, and none has examined in relation to molecular subtypes among African women. The current analysis examines the association between body composition, defined by body mass index (BMI), height, and weight, and BC by molecular subtype among African women.

METHODS

We estimated odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) for the association between measures of body composition and BC and molecular subtypes among 419 histologically confirmed cases of BC and 286 healthy controls from the Mechanisms for Established and Novel Risk Factors for Breast Cancer in Women of Nigerian Descent (MEND) case-control study.

RESULTS

Higher BMI (aOR: 0.79; 95% CI: 0.67, 0.95) and weight (aOR: 0.83; 95% CI: 0.69, 0.98) were associated with reduced odds of BC in adjusted models, while height was associated with non-statistically significant increased odds of BC (aOR: 1.07, 95% CI: 0.90, 1.28). In pre/peri-menopausal, but not post-menopausal women, both higher BMI and weight were significantly associated with reduced odds of BC. Further, higher BMI was associated with reduced odds of Luminal A, Luminal B, and HER2-enriched BC among pre/peri-menopausal women, and reduced odds of triple-negative BC among post-menopausal women.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher BMI and weight were associated with reduced odds of BC overall and by molecular subtype among West African women. Larger studies of women of African descent are needed to definitively characterize these associations and inform cancer prevention strategies.

Steroid Receptors in Breast Cancer: Understanding of Molecular Function as a Basis for Effective Therapy Development

Breast cancer remains one of the most important health problems worldwide. The family of steroid receptors (SRs), which comprise estrogen (ER), progesterone (PR), androgen (AR), glucocorticoid (GR) and mineralocorticoid (MR) receptors, along with a receptor for a secosteroid-vitamin D, play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of the disease. They function predominantly as nuclear receptors to regulate gene expression, however, their full spectrum of action reaches far beyond this basic mechanism. SRs are involved in a vast variety of interactions with other proteins, including extensive crosstalk with each other. How they affect the biology of a breast cell depends on such factors as post-translational modifications, expression of coregulators, or which SR isoform is predominantly synthesized in a given cellular context. Although ER has been successfully utilized as a breast cancer therapy target for years, research on therapeutic application of other SRs is still ongoing. Designing effective hormone therapies requires thorough understanding of the molecular function of the SRs. Over the past decades, huge amount of data was obtained in multiple studies exploring this field, therefore in this review we attempt to summarize the current knowledge in a comprehensive way.

Impact of cholesterol-pathways on breast cancer development, a metabolic landscape

ApoB-lipoproteins and their components modulate intracellular metabolism and have been associated with the development of neoplastic phenomena, such as proliferation, anchorage-independent growth, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and cancer invasion. In cancer cells, the modulation of targets that regulate cholesterol metabolism, such as synthesis de novo, endocytosis, and oxidation, are contributing factors to cancer development. While mechanisms associated with sterol regulatory element-binding protein 2 (SREBP-2)/mevalonate, the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDL-R) and liver X receptor (LXR) have been linked with tumor growth; metabolites derived from cholesterol-oxidation, such as oxysterols and epoxy-cholesterols, also have been described as tumor processes-inducers. From this notion, we perform an analysis of the role of lipoproteins, their association with intracellular cholesterol metabolism, and the impact of these conditions on breast cancer development, mechanisms that can be shared during atherogenesis promoted mainly by LDL. Pathways connecting plasma dyslipidemias in conjunction with the effect of cholesterol-derived metabolites on intracellular mechanisms and cellular plasticity phenomena could provide new approaches to elucidate the triggering factors of carcinogenesis, conditions that could be considered in the development of new therapeutic approaches.

Metabolic syndrome risk components and mortality after triple-negative breast cancer diagnosis in postmenopausal women in the Women's Health Initiative

BACKGROUND

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) has a high recurrence risk and poor clinical outcomes. Associations between metabolic syndrome (MetS) risk components and mortality in postmenopausal women with TNBC were examined in the Women's Health Initiative.

METHODS

Five hundred forty-four postmenopausal women were diagnosed with nonmetastatic TNBC. Baseline risk components included a high waist circumference (≥88 cm), high blood pressure, hypercholesterolemia, and diabetes. Groups were categorized by the number of MetS risk components: none, 1 or 2, or 3 or 4. Hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) across groups were computed with multivariable adjusted Cox models. Outcomes included breast cancer-specific mortality and breast cancer overall mortality (breast cancer followed by death from any cause). Variables in the multivariable model included age at TNBC diagnosis; race/ethnicity; income; education; clinical/observational trial status; history of oral contraceptive, hormone, and/or statin use; cancer stage; and chemotherapy and/or radiation treatment status.

RESULTS

Of the 544 participants with TNBC, 33% had no MetS risk components (n = 178), 59% had 1 or 2 risk components (n = 323), and 8% had 3 or 4 risk components (n = 43). After a median follow-up from diagnosis of 8.3 years, multivariable results showed that women with 3 or 4 risk components had a nonsignificantly higher risk of breast cancer mortality (HR, 2.05; 95% CI, 0.94-4.47 trend P = .114) and a significantly higher risk of overall mortality (HR, 2.13; 95% CI, 1.22-3.71; trend P = .006) versus women with 0 risk components.

CONCLUSIONS

Postmenopausal women with TNBC and 3 or 4 MetS risk components have a nonsignificantly higher breast cancer mortality risk and a significantly higher overall mortality risk, likely because of negative influences of metabolic risk factors on several causes of death.

Breast cancer and the renin-angiotensin system (RAS): Therapeutic approaches and related metabolic diseases

The Renin-Angiotensin System (RAS) is classically recognized for regulating blood pressure and fluid balance. Recently, this role has extended to other areas including inflammation, obesity, diabetes, as well as breast cancer. RAS components are expressed in normal and cancerous breast tissues, and downregulation of RAS inhibits metastasis, proliferation, angiogenesis, and desmoplasia in the tumor microenvironment. Therefore, RAS inhibitors (Angiotensin receptor blockers, ARBs, or angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, ACE-I) may be beneficial as preventive adjuvant therapies to thwart breast cancer development and improve outcomes, respectively. Given the beneficial effects of RAS inhibitors in metabolic diseases, which often co-exist in breast cancer patients, combining RAS inhibitors with other breast cancer therapies may enhance the effectiveness of current treatments. This review scrutinizes above associations, to advance our understanding of the role of RAS in breast cancer and its potential for repurposing of RAS inhibitors to improve the therapeutic approach for breast cancer patients.

Metabolic syndrome and gastric cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Gastric cancer (GC) is the fifth diagnosed cancer worldwide and the third leading cause of death for cancer. Recent reports suggest that metabolic syndrome (MetS) has a role in etiology, progression or prognosis on GC. The aim of this study is to systematically review the evidence on the association between MetS and GC risk and prognosis.

METHODS

Literature search was performed using the electronic databases Pubmed, Web of Knowledge, Embase and Cinahl Complete until December 2019. Cohort and case-control studies were included. Study-specific association measures were pooled using a random-effect model.

RESULTS

A total of 14 studies included in the qualitative synthesis of which nine were meta-analyzed. The majority were cohort studies (92%) and set in Asia (57%). The pooled analysis reported no association between MetS and GC risk [hazard ratio (HR) 1.05, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.92-1.18; I2 = 74.2%, P < 0.001], however when the analysis was stratified according to the geographic area and sex, Western women with MetS had an increased risk of GC (HR 1.24, 95% CI 1.05-1.47; I2 = 4.6%, P = 0.351). We did not observe an increased risk of unfavorable prognosis for individuals with MetS (HR 1.23, 95% CI 0.25-6.08).

CONCLUSION

This systematic review and meta-analysis suggests that GC risk might be associated with MetS in women although larger studies are needed. Preventing and treating MetS, however, might have overall beneficial effect on several noncommunicable diseases and in this sense should be pursued.

The association of prediagnostic circulating levels of cardiometabolic markers, testosterone and sex hormone-binding globulin with risk of breast cancer among normal weight postmenopausal women in the UK Biobank

Emerging evidence suggests that normal weight postmenopausal women with a relative excess of body fat are at increased breast cancer risk. However, little is known about the associations between obesity-related blood markers and risk of breast cancer among these individuals. In this prospective study comprising 58 629 normal weight postmenopausal women (body mass index between 18.5 kg/m² and 24.9 kg/m² ) who were enrolled in the UK Biobank cohort between 2006 and 2010, we examined the associations of glycated hemoglobin, triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, C-reactive protein (CRP), testosterone and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) with risk of breast cancer. A total of 1268 postmenopausal breast cancer cases were ascertained during a median follow-up period of 7 years. Women with CRP, total testosterone and free testosterone (FT) levels in the highest quintile had increased risk of breast cancer compared to those in the lowest quintile (HR_{Q5 vs Q1} : 1.35, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.12-1.63, HR _{Q5 vs Q1} : 1.47, 95% CI: 1.20-1.80 and HR _{Q5 vs Q1} : 1.53, 95% CI: 1.23-1.90, respectively), whereas those with SHBG in the highest quintile had reduced risk (HR _{Q5 vs Q1} : 0.70, 95% CI: 0.56-0.88). These associations were attenuated but persisted after additional adjustment for BMI, fat mass index (whole body fat mass [kg]/height [m² ]) or waist circumference and after mutual adjustment for testosterone, CRP and/or SHBG. Our study suggests that the risk of postmenopausal breast cancer among normal weight women is increased in association with relatively high levels of CRP and testosterone and with relatively low levels of SHBG.

Obesity, Type 2 Diabetes, and Cancer Risk

Obesity and type 2 diabetes have both been associated with increased cancer risk and are becoming increasingly prevalent. Metabolic abnormalities such as insulin resistance and dyslipidemia are associated with both obesity and type 2 diabetes and have been implicated in the obesity-cancer relationship. Multiple mechanisms have been proposed to link obesity and diabetes with cancer progression, including an increase in insulin/IGF-1 signaling, lipid and glucose uptake and metabolism, alterations in the profile of cytokines, chemokines, and adipokines, as well as changes in the adipose tissue directly adjacent to the cancer sites. This review aims to summarize and provide an update on the epidemiological and mechanistic evidence linking obesity and type 2 diabetes with cancer, focusing on the roles of insulin, lipids, and adipose tissue.

Allostatic score and its associations with demographics, healthy behaviors, tumor characteristics, and mitochondrial DNA among breast cancer patients

INTRODUCTION

Allostatic load (AL), a composite index, has been used to capture variation in life-course stresses. However, few studies have been carried out among breast cancer patients.

METHODS

In this study, we examined the cross-sectional association of AL with demographics, healthy behaviors, tumor characteristics, and mitochondrial DNA copy number in breast cancer patients. The study used a sub-sample of 934 women with newly diagnosed breast cancer at M.D. Anderson from 2013 to 2018. To construct the AL score, the study used a battery of seventeen factors that represents the activity of five physiological systems: metabolic, cardiovascular, immunological, renal, and liver.

RESULTS

AL was positively associated with the age of disease diagnosis (P = 0.002), and was higher in Black and Hispanic populations than White (P = 0.001 and 0.032, respectively). AL was also found more abundant in those who experienced marital dissolution (P = 0.006), lacked a college education (P = 0.045), currently smoked (P = 0.011), and had low levels of physical activity (P = 0.037) than their counterparts. The study then found that higher AL was associated with increased odds of having poorly differentiated tumors (Odds ratio (OR): 1.40, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.28, 1.62). An additional significant association was observed between AL with estrogen receptor negative (ER-) (OR = 1.56, 95%CI: 1.02, 2.36) among Black patients. Finally, we observed a significant positive correlation between AL with leukocyte mitochondrial DNA copy number variation (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude AL is influenced by selected demographics and healthy behaviors, and further is correlated with tumor characteristics and mitochondrial DNA copy number in breast cancer patients.

The Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome in Ethiopian Population: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Background

The metabolic syndrome is a clustering of hyperglycemia/insulin resistance, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and obesity which are risk factors for cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and stroke, and all-cause mortality. The burden of metabolic syndrome is emerging alarmingly in low- and middle-income countries such as Ethiopia; however, there is lack of comprehensive estimation. This study aimed to determine the pooled prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Ethiopia.

Methods

This systematic review and meta-analysis included original articles of observational studies published in the English language. Searches were carried out in PubMed, Google Scholar, and Africa Journals from conception to August 2020. A random-effects model was used to estimate the pooled prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Ethiopia. Heterogeneity was assessed using the I 2 statistic. Subgroup analysis was also conducted based on sex/gender and study subjects. Egger's test was used to assess publication bias.

Results

Electronic and gray literature search retrieved 942 potentially relevant papers. After removing duplicates and screening with eligibility criteria, twenty-eight cross-sectional studies were included in this meta-analysis. The pooled prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Ethiopia was found to be 34.89% (95% CI: 26.77, 43.01) and 27.92% (95% CI: 21.32, 34.51) by using NCEP/ATP III and IDF criteria, respectively. The weighted pooled prevalence of metabolic syndrome was higher in females 36.74% (95% CI: 20.72, 52.75) and 34.09% (95% CI: 26.68, 41.50) compared to males 22.22% (95% CI: 14.89, 29.56) and 24.82% (95% CI: 18.34, 31.31) by using IDF and NCEP/ATP III criteria, respectively. Subgroup analysis based on the study subjects using NCEP/ATP III showed that the weighted pooled prevalence was 63.78%(95% CI: 56.17, 71.40), 44.55% (95% CI: 30.71, 52.38), 23.09% (95% CI: 19.74, 26.45), 20.83% (95% CI: 18.64, 23.01), and 18.45% (95% CI: 13.89, 23.01) among type 2 diabetes patients, hypertensive patients, psychiatric patients, HIV patients on HAART, and working adults, respectively. The most frequent metabolic syndrome components were low HDL-C 51.0% (95% CI: 42.4, 59.7) and hypertriglyceridemia 39.7% (95% CI: 32.8, 46.6).

Conclusions

The findings revealed an emerging high prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Ethiopia. Therefore, early intervention is required for the primary prevention of the occurrence of metabolic syndrome and the further reduction of the morbidity and mortality related to it.

Effectiveness of a Global Multidisciplinary Supportive and Educational Intervention in Thermal Resort on Anthropometric and Biological Parameters, and the Disease-Free Survival after Breast Cancer Treatment Completion (PACThe)

A growing knowledge highlights the strong benefit of regular physical activity in the management of breast cancer patients, but few studies have considered biological parameters in their outcomes. In the prospective randomised trial after breast cancer treatment completion “PACThe,” we determined the effects of physical activity and nutritional intervention on the biological and anthropometric status of patients after one year of follow-up, and clarified the link between biomarkers at allocation and disease-free survival. 113 patients from the population of the “PACThe” study (n = 251) were analysed for biological parameters. Patients were randomized after chemotherapy in two arms: the intervention “SPA” receiving a 2-week session of physical training, dietary education, and physiotherapy (n = 57), and the control “CTR” (n = 56). Diet questionnaire, anthropometric measures, and blood parameters were determined at allocation and one year later. Survival and recurrence were checked over 7 years. Data were considered as a function of BMI, i.e., ≤25 for normal, 25–30 for overweight, and >30 for obese patients. At allocation, the large standard deviation for nutrient-intake values reflected an unbalanced diet for some patients in the three groups. At one-year follow-up, we noticed an increase in glucose (p < 10⁻⁶), insulin (p < 10⁻⁷), and adiponectin (p < 0.022) plasma levels for both intervention arms, which were more accentuated for the >30 groups. Using the Cox model, we demonstrated that the highest testosterone plasma values were linked to an increase of the recurrence risk (HR [CI–95%] = 5.06 [1.66–15.41]; p=0.004). One-year after a global multidisciplinary supportive and educational intervention, we found few anthropometric and biological changes, mainly related to the patient's initial BMI. We highlighted the importance of plasma testosterone in the evaluation of patient's recurrence risk. Future studies would help better understand the mechanisms by which such multidisciplinary interventions could interact with breast cancer recurrence and define the most effective modalities.

Association Between Metabolic Syndrome and Breast Cancer Risk: An Updated Meta-Analysis of Follow-Up Studies

Background: Association between metabolic syndrome (MetS) and incidence of breast cancer remains to be validated. Moreover, whether menopausal status of the women affects this association is unclear. A meta-analysis was performed to summarize the association between MetS and breast cancer risk.

Methods: Follow-up studies were identified by search of PubMed and Embase databases published until May 26, 2019. A random-effect model or fixed-effect model was applied to pool the results according to the heterogeneity. Subgroup analyses according to the menopausal status, ethnic groups, cancer histopathological features, and study design characteristics.

Results: Overall, 17 follow-up studies with 602,195 women and 15,945 cases of breast cancer were included. Results of meta-analysis showed that MetS defined by the revised National Cholesterol Education Program's Adults Treatment Panel III criteria was associated with significantly increased risk for breast cancer incidence (adjusted risk ratio [RR] = 1.15, p = 0.003). Subgroup analyses showed that MetS was associated with significantly increased risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women (adjusted RR = 1.25, p < 0.001), but significantly reduced breast cancer risk in premenopausal women (adjusted RR = 0.82, p < 0.001). Further analyses showed that the association between MetS and increased risk of breast cancer were mainly evidenced from studies including Caucasian and Asian women, reporting invasive breast cancer, and of retrospective design.

Conclusions: Menopausal status may affect the association between MetS and breast cancer incidence. Postmenopausal women with Mets are associated with increased risk of breast cancer.

Metabolic hormones and breast cancer risk among Mexican American Women in the Mano a Mano Cohort Study

C-peptide, insulin, leptin, and other metabolic hormones are assumed to play roles in breast cancer development; though, results are inconsistent. In this prospective case-control study nested within the Mano a Mano Cohort Study, we assessed the risk of breast cancer with regard to plasma levels of c-peptide, gastric inhibitory polypeptide, insulin, leptin, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, pancreatic polypeptide, and peptide YY. Among women followed for a median of 8.5 years, 109 breast cancer cases were identified and frequency-matched to 327 controls at a ratio of 1:3. Overall, only c-peptide was observed significantly associated with breast cancer risk. High c-peptide levels (≥ the median level of controls) were significantly associated with increased breast cancer risk (odds ratio [OR] = 1.39, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.01, 2.44). In an analysis of participants stratified by age, the significant association between c-peptide levels and breast cancer risk was evident in only women age ≥51 years (OR = 1.53, 95% CI: 1.02, 3.27). Among women age <51 years, high leptin levels were significantly associated with decreased breast cancer risk (OR = 0.49, 95% CI: 0.24, 0.82). Our findings suggest that selected metabolic hormones are associated with breast cancer development in Mexican American women.

Prediction of Metabolic Syndrome for the Survival of Patients With Digestive Tract Cancer: A Meta-Analysis

Background and Objectives: Growing evidence indicates that metabolic syndrome confers a differential risk for the development and progression of many types of cancer, especially in the digestive tract system. We here synthesized the results of published cohort studies to test whether baseline metabolic syndrome and its components can predict survival in patients with esophageal, gastric, or colorectal cancer.

Methods: Literature retrieval, publication selection and data extraction were performed independently by two authors. Analyses were done using STATA software (version 14.1).

Results: A total of 15 publications involving 54,656 patients were meta-analyzed. In overall analyses, the presence of metabolic syndrome was associated with a non-significant 19% increased mortality risk for digestive tract cancer (hazard ratio [HR]: 1.19; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.45 to 2.520.95 to 1.49, P = 0.130; I²: 94.8%). In stratified analyses, the association between metabolic syndrome and digestive tract cancer survival was statistically significant in prospective studies (HR: 1.64, 95% CI: 1.18 to 2.28), in studies involving postsurgical patients (HR: 1.42, 95% CI: 1.06 to 1.92), and in studies assessing cancer-specific survival (HR: 1.91, 95% CI: 1.45 to 2.52). Further meta-regression analyses indicated that age and smoking were potential sources of between-study heterogeneity (both P < 0.001). The shape of the Begg's funnel plot seemed symmetrical (Begg's test P = 0.945 and Egger's test P = 0.305).

Conclusions: Our findings indicate that metabolic syndrome is associated with an increased risk of postsurgical digestive tract cancer-specific mortality. Continued investigations are needed to uncover the precise molecule mechanism linking metabolic syndrome and digestive tract cancer.

Association between Heavy Metals, Bisphenol A, Volatile Organic Compounds and Phthalates and Metabolic Syndrome

The incidence of metabolic syndrome (MetS), which causes heart disease and stroke, has increased significantly worldwide. Although many studies have revealed the relationship between heavy metals (cadmium, mercury, and lead), the sum of metabolites of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and MetS, the results remain inconsistent. No study has reported the association between various volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and phthalate metabolites with MetS. This cross-sectional study of a representative sample of adult South Koreans aimed to evaluate the relationship between heavy metals, VOC metabolites, phthalate metabolites, bisphenol A and MetS after adjusting for demographic variables. Data from the Korean National Environmental Health Survey II (2012–2014) (n = 5251) were used in the analysis. Multiple logistic regression analysis was performed for MetS with log-transformed hazardous material quartiles after covariate adjustment. Urine muconic acid (MuA) and mono- (2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP) levels were significantly associated with MetS after adjusting for confounders (odds ratio: 1.34 and 1.39, respectively). Urine MuA and MEHHP levels were significantly associated with MetS. Because of the rarity of this study, which investigated the relationship between each VOC and phthalate metabolite with MetS and the strict definition of all indirect measures of MetS components, further research is needed.

Dietary Fructose Consumption and Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Incidence

In the past century the western world has found a way to combat most communicative diseases; however, throughout that time the prevalence of obesity, hyperglycemia, and hyperlipidemia have drastically increased. These symptoms characterize metabolic syndrome-a non-communicable disease which has become one of the greatest health hazards of the world. During this same time period the western diet had dramatically changed. Homecooked meals have been replaced by highly-processed, calorically dense foods. This conversion to the current western diet was highlighted by the incorporation of high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) into sweetened beverages and foods. The consumption of large amounts of dietary sugar, and fructose in particular, has been associated with an altered metabolic state, both systemically and in specific tissues. This altered metabolic state has many profound effects and is associated with many diseases, including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and even cancer (1). Specific types of cancer, like triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), are both responsive to dietary factors and exceptionally difficult to treat, illustrating the possibility for preventative care through dietary intervention in at risk populations. To treat these non-communicable diseases, including obesity, diabetes, and cancer, it is imperative to understand systemic and localized metabolic abnormalities that drive its progression. This review will specifically explore the links between increased dietary fructose consumption, development of metabolic disturbances and increased incidence of TNBC.