β-Caryophyllene Inhibits Cell Proliferation through a Direct Modulation of CB2 Receptors in Glioblastoma Cells

Promising the potential of β-caryophyllene on mercury chloride-induced alteration in cerebellum and spinal cord of young Wistar albino rats

Mercury chloride (ME) is a chemical pollutant commonly found in the environment, which can contribute to undesirable health consequence worldwide. The current study investigated the detrimental impact of ME on the cerebellum and spinal cord tissues in 6-8-week-old female rats. We also evaluated the neuroprotective efficacy of β-caryophyllene (BC) against spinal and cerebellar changes caused by ME. Thirty-five young Wistar albino rats were randomly chosen and assigned into five groups: control (CO), olive oil (OI), ME, BC, ME + BC. All samples were analysed by means of unbiased stereological, biochemical, immunohistochemical, and histopathological methods. Our biochemical findings showed that SOD level was significantly increased in the ME group compared to the CO group (p < 0.05). We additionally detected a statistically significant decrease in the number of cerebellar Purkinje cells and granular cells, as well as spinal motor neuron in the ME group compared to the CO group (p < 0.05). In the ME + BC group, the number of Purkinje cells, granular cells, and spinal motor neurons was significantly higher compared to the ME group (p < 0.05). Decreased SOD activity in the ME + BC group was also detected than the ME group (p < 0.05). Immunohistochemical (the tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)) and histopathological examinations also exhibited crucial information in each of the group. Taken together, ME exposure was associated with neurotoxicity in the cerebellum and spinal cord tissues. BC treatment also mitigated ME-induced neurological alteration, which may imply its potential therapeutic benefits.

Management of the Brain: Essential Oils as Promising Neuroinflammation Modulator in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Neuroinflammation, a pivotal factor in the pathogenesis of various brain disorders, including neurodegenerative diseases, has become a focal point for therapeutic exploration. This review highlights neuroinflammatory mechanisms that hallmark neurodegenerative diseases and the potential benefits of essential oils in counteracting neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, thereby offering a novel strategy for managing and mitigating the impact of various brain disorders. Essential oils, derived from aromatic plants, have emerged as versatile compounds with a myriad of health benefits. Essential oils exhibit robust antioxidant activity, serving as scavengers of free radicals and contributing to cellular defense against oxidative stress. Furthermore, essential oils showcase anti-inflammatory properties, modulating immune responses and mitigating inflammatory processes implicated in various chronic diseases. The intricate mechanisms by which essential oils and phytomolecules exert their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects were explored, shedding light on their multifaceted properties. Notably, we discussed their ability to modulate diverse pathways crucial in maintaining oxidative homeostasis and suppressing inflammatory responses, and their capacity to rescue cognitive deficits observed in preclinical models of neurotoxicity and neurodegenerative diseases.

Targeting the Endocannabinoid System Present in the Glioblastoma Tumour Microenvironment as a Potential Anti-Cancer Strategy

The highly aggressive and invasive glioblastoma (GBM) tumour is the most malignant lesion among adult-type diffuse gliomas, representing the most common primary brain tumour in the neuro-oncology practice of adults. With a poor overall prognosis and strong resistance to treatment, this nervous system tumour requires new innovative treatment. GBM is a polymorphic tumour consisting of an array of stromal cells and various malignant cells contributing to tumour initiation, progression, and treatment response. Cannabinoids possess anti-cancer potencies against glioma cell lines and in animal models. To improve existing treatment, cannabinoids as functionalised ligands on nanocarriers were investigated as potential anti-cancer agents. The GBM tumour microenvironment is a multifaceted system consisting of resident or recruited immune cells, extracellular matrix components, tissue-resident cells, and soluble factors. The immune microenvironment accounts for a substantial volume of GBM tumours. The barriers to the treatment of glioblastoma with cannabinoids, such as crossing the blood-brain barrier and psychoactive and off-target side effects, can be alleviated with the use of nanocarrier drug delivery systems and functionalised ligands for improved specificity and targeting of pharmacological receptors and anti-cancer signalling pathways. This review has shown the presence of endocannabinoid receptors in the tumour microenvironment, which can be used as a potential unique target for specific drug delivery. Existing cannabinoid agents, studied previously, show anti-cancer potencies via signalling pathways associated with the hallmarks of cancer. The results of the review can be used to provide guidance in the design of future drug therapy for glioblastoma tumours.

β-Caryophyllene Inhibits Monoacylglycerol Lipase Activity and Increases 2-Arachidonoyl Glycerol Levels In Vivo: A New Mechanism of Endocannabinoid-Mediated Analgesia?

The mechanisms of β-caryophyllene (BCP)-induced analgesia are not well studied. Here, we tested the efficacy of BCP in an acute postsurgical pain model and evaluated its effect on the endocannabinoid system. Rats were treated with vehicle and 10, 25, 50, and 75 mg/kg BCP. Paw withdrawal responses to mechanical stimuli were evaluated using an electronic von Frey anesthesiometer. Endocannabinoids, including 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), were also evaluated in plasma and tissues using high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) activity was evaluated in vitro as well as ex vivo. We observed a dose-dependent and time-dependent alleviation of hyperalgesia in incised paws up to 85% of the baseline value at 30 minutes after administration of BCP. We also observed dose-dependent increases in the 2-AG levels of about threefold after administration of BCP as compared with vehicle controls. Incubations of spinal cord tissue homogenates from BCP-treated rats with isotope-labeled 2-arachidonoylglycerol-d8 revealed a reduced formation of the isotope-labeled MAGL product 2-AG-d8 as compared with vehicle controls, indicating MAGL enzyme inhibition. In vitro MAGL enzyme activity assessment using 2-AG as the substrate revealed an IC50 of 15.8 µM for MAGL inhibition using BCP. These data showed that BCP inhibits MAGL activity in vitro and in vivo, causing 2-AG levels to rise. Since the endocannabinoid 2-AG is a CB1 and CB2 receptor agonist, we propose that 2-AG-mediated cannabinoid receptor activation contributes to BCP's mechanism of analgesia. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: β-Caryophyllene (BCP) consumption is relatively safe and is approved by the Food and Drug Administration as a flavoring agent, which can be used in cosmetic and food additives. BCP is a potent anti-inflammatory agent that showed substantial antihyperalgesic properties in this study of acute pain suggesting that BCP might be an alternative to opioids. This study shows an additive mechanism (monoacylglycerol lipase inhibition) by which BCP might indirectly alter CB1 and CB2 receptor activity and exhibit its pharmacological properties.

β-Caryophyllene Inhibits Endothelial Tube Formation by Modulating the Secretome of Hypoxic Lung Cancer Cells-Possible Role of VEGF Downregulation

β-Caryophyllene (BCP), a bicyclic sesquiterpene that is a component of the essential oils of various spice and food plants, has been described as a selective CB2 cannabinoid receptor agonist. In the present study, the effect of BCP on angiogenesis was investigated. It was found that conditioned media (CM) from BCP-treated hypoxic A549 lung cancer cells exhibited a concentration-dependent inhibitory effect on human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) tube formation induced by CM from vehicle-treated hypoxic A549 cells. There was an associated concentration-dependent decrease in the proangiogenic factor vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the CM, with both BCP inhibitory effects (tube formation, VEGF secretion) being CB2 receptor-dependent. A reduction of the transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) was furthermore detected. The antiangiogenic and VEGF-lowering properties of BCP were confirmed when CM from another lung cancer cell line, H358, were tested. When directly exposed to HUVECs, BCP showed no significant effect on tube formation, but at 10 µM, impaired VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2) phosphorylation triggered by recombinant VEGF in a CB2 receptor-independent manner. In summary, BCP has a dual antiangiogenic effect on HUVECs, manifested in the inhibition of tube formation through modulation of the tumor cell secretome and additionally in the inhibition of VEGF-induced VEGFR2 activation. Because the CB2 agonist has no psychoactive properties, BCP should continue to be evaluated preclinically for further antitumor effects.

Exploring the therapeutic potential of natural compounds modulating the endocannabinoid system in various diseases and disorders: review

Cannabinoid receptors, endogenous cannabinoids (endocannabinoids), and the enzymes involved in the biosynthesis and degradation of the endocannabinoids make up the endocannabinoid system (ECS). The components of the ECS are proven to modulate a vast bulk of various physiological and pathological processes due to their abundance throughout the human body. Such discoveries have attracted the researchers' attention and emerged as a potential therapeutical target for the treatment of various diseases. In the present article, we reviewed the discoveries of natural compounds, herbs, herbs formula, and their therapeutic properties in various diseases and disorders by modulating the ECS. We also summarize the molecular mechanisms through which these compounds elicit their properties by interacting with the ECS based on the existing findings. Our study provides the insight into the use of natural compounds that modulate ECS in various diseases and disorders, which in turn may facilitate future studies exploiting natural lead compounds as novel frameworks for designing more effective and safer therapeutics.

Epicutaneous Sensitization to the Phytocannabinoid β-Caryophyllene Induces Pruritic Inflammation

In recent years, there has been increased accessibility to cannabis for recreational and medicinal use. Incidentally, there has been an increase in reports describing allergic reactions to cannabis including exacerbation of underlying asthma. Recently, multiple protein allergens were discovered in cannabis, yet these fail to explain allergic sensitization in many patients, particularly urticaria and angioedema. Cannabis has a rich chemical profile including cannabinoids and terpenes that possess immunomodulatory potential. We examined whether major cannabinoids of cannabis such as cannabidiol (CBD) and the bicyclic sesquiterpene beta-caryophyllene (β-CP) act as contact sensitizers. The repeated topical application of mice skin with β-CP at 10 mg/mL (50 µL) induced an itch response and dermatitis at 2 weeks in mice, which were sustained for the period of study. Histopathological analysis of skin tissues revealed significant edema and desquamation for β-CP at 10 mg/mL. For CBD and β-CP, we observed a dose-dependent increase in epidermal thickening with profound thickening observed for β-CP at 10 mg/mL. Significant trafficking of CD11b cells was observed in various compartments of the skin in response to treatment with β-CP in a concentration-dependent manner. Mast cell trafficking was restricted to β-CP (10 mg/mL). Mouse proteome profiler cytokine/chemokine array revealed upregulation of complement C5/5a (anaphylatoxin), soluble intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1) and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) in animals dosed with β-CP (10 mg/mL). Moreover, we observed a dose-dependent increase in serum IgE in animals dosed with β-CP. Treatment with β-CP (10 mg/mL) significantly reduced filaggrin expression, an indicator of barrier disruption. In contrast, treatment with CBD at all concentrations failed to evoke scratching and dermatitis in mice and did not result in increased serum IgE. Further, skin tissues were devoid of any remarkable features, although at 10 mg/mL CBD we did observe the accumulation of dermal CD11b cells in skin tissue sections. We also observed increased filaggrin staining in mice repeatedly dosed with CBD (10 mg/mL). Collectively, our studies indicate that repeated exposure to high concentrations of β-CP can induce dermatitis-like pathological outcomes in mice.

β-caryophyllene oxide induces apoptosis and inhibits proliferation of A549 lung cancer cells

One of the most common cancers that result in death is lung cancer. There is new hope in the fight against lung cancer thanks to the chemopreventive properties of natural dietary substances like β-caryophyllene oxide (CPO), and research is currently being done to test this theory. CPO, a sesquiterpene isolated from medicinal plant essential oils, inhibits carcinogenesis and has been effective in treating many cancers. This study examined how CPO affected proliferation of human lung cancer A549 cells. CPO was found to have an inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 124.1 g/ml. The proliferative markers Ki67 and PCNA were significantly inhibited after cells were treated with CPO at a concentration of 50 g/ml compared to controls. CPO-treated cells expressed more P21, P53, and DNA strand breaks than controls. This was accompanied by a significant cell cycle arrest in the S and G2/M phases. In treated A549 cells, this was also associated with a significant induction of apoptosis, as shown by the upregulation of the expression of caspases 3, 7, and 9, as well as Bax, and the downregulation of Bcl-2. Furthermore, the redox status of treated A549 cells revealed a marked rise in GSH and GPx activity levels and a decline in 4-HNE levels, indicating low oxidative stress following CPO treatment of A549 cells. In conclusion, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, which are unrelated to oxidative stress, were the mechanisms by which CPO reduced cancer lung cell growth. This finding might be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of lung cancer. Hypothetical scheme of CPO anticancer effects (mechanism of signaling) in A549 cells; in vitro. CPO treatment increases expression of p21, p53 and DNA fragmentation. These events cause arrest of cell cycle which was associated with significant induction in apoptosis via increase expression of caspases (-3,-7,-9), and Bax and downregulation of Bcl-2.

Oral CBD-rich hemp extract modulates sterile inflammation in female and male rats

Introduction: Cannabidiol (CBD) extract from the cannabis plant has biomedical and nutraceutical potential. Unlike tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), CBD products produce few psychoactive effects and pose little risk for abuse. There is emerging preclinical and clinical evidence that CBD is stress modulatory and may have anti-inflammatory properties. People across the United States legally ingest CBD-rich hemp extracts to manage mental and physical health problems, including stress and inflammation. Preclinical studies have revealed potential mechanisms for these effects; however, the impact of this prior work is diminished because many studies: 1) tested synthetic CBD rather than CBD-rich hemp extracts containing terpenes and/or other cannabinoids thought to enhance therapeutic benefits; 2) administered CBD via injection into the peritoneal cavity or the brain instead of oral ingestion; and 3) failed to examine potential sex differences. To address these gaps in the literature, the following study tested the hypothesis that the voluntary oral ingestion of CBD-rich hemp extract will attenuate the impact of stressor exposure on plasma and tissue inflammatory and stress proteins in females and males. Methods: Adult male and female Sprague Dawley rats (10-15/group) were randomly assigned to be given cereal coated with either vehicle (coconut oil) or CBD-rich hemp extract (L-M0717, CBDrx/Functional Remedies, 20.0 mg/kg). After 7 days, rats were exposed to a well-established acute model of stress (100, 1.5 mA, 5-s, intermittent tail shocks, 90 min total duration) or remained in home cages as non-stressed controls. Results: Stressor exposure induced a robust stress response, i.e., increased plasma corticosterone and blood glucose, and decreased spleen weight (a surrogate measure of sympathetic nervous system activation). Overall, stress-induced increases in inflammatory and stress proteins were lower in females than males, and oral CBD-rich hemp extract constrained these responses in adipose tissue (AT) and mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN). Consistent with previous reports, females had higher levels of stress-evoked corticosterone compared to males, which may have contributed to the constrained inflammatory response measured in females. Discussion: Results from this study suggest that features of the acute stress response are impacted by oral ingestion of CBD-rich hemp extract in female and male rats, and the pattern of changes may be sex and tissue dependent.

Effects of β-caryophyllene and oxygen availability on cholesterol and fatty acids in breast cancer cells

Hypoxia is a common feature of most solid tumors, one that favors tumor progression and limits treatment effectiveness. Targeting hypoxia has long been a goal in cancer therapy, by identifying factors that reverse or ameliorate the effects of hypoxia on cancer cells. We, and others, have shown that β-caryophyllene (BCP) exhibits anti-proliferative properties in cancer cells. We have further shown that non-cytotoxic concentrations of BCP affect cholesterol and lipid biosynthesis in hypoxic hBrC cells at both transcriptional and translational levels. This led us to hypothesize that BCP may reverse the hypoxic phenotype in hBrC cells. To test this, we determined the effect of BCP on hypoxic sensitive pathways, including oxygen consumption, glycolysis, oxidative stress, cholesterol and fatty acid biosynthesis, and ERK activation. While each of these studies revealed new information on the regulation by hypoxia and BCP, only the lipidomic studies showed reversal of hypoxic-dependent effects by BCP. These later studies showed that hypoxia-treated samples lowered monounsaturated fatty acid levels, shifting the saturation ratios of the fatty acid pools. This signature was ameliorated by sub-lethal concentrations of BCP, possibly through an effect on the C:16 fatty acid saturation ratios. This is consistent with BCP-induced upregulation of the stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD) gene, observed previously. This suggests that BCP may interfere with the lipid signature modulated by hypoxia which could have consequences for membrane biosynthesis or composition, both of which are important for cell replication.

Impact of Plant-Derived Compounds on Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal illness characterized by progressive motor neuron degeneration. Conventional therapies for ALS are based on treatment of symptoms, and the disease remains incurable. Molecular mechanisms are unclear, but studies have been pointing to involvement of glia, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and glutamate excitotoxicity as a key factor. Nowadays, we have few treatments for this disease that only delays death, but also does not stop the neurodegenerative process. These treatments are based on glutamate blockage (riluzole), tyrosine kinase inhibition (masitinib), and antioxidant activity (edaravone). In the past few years, plant-derived compounds have been studied for neurodegenerative disorder therapies based on neuroprotection and glial cell response. In this review, we describe mechanisms of action of natural compounds associated with neuroprotective effects, and the possibilities for new therapeutic strategies in ALS.

Conventional and PEGylated Liposomes as Vehicles of Copaifera sabulicola

Traditional medicine uses resin oils extracted from plants of the genus Copaifera for several purposes. Resin oils are being studied to understand and profile their pharmacological properties. The aim of this work was to prepare and to characterize conventional and pegylated liposomes incorporating resin oils or the hexanic extract obtained from Copaifera sabulicola (copaiba) leaves. The cytotoxic effect of these products was also investigated. Conventional and stealth liposomes with copaiba extract showed similar average diameters (around 126 nm), encapsulation efficiencies greater than 75% and were stable for 90 days. A cytotoxicity test was performed on murine glioma cells and the developed liposomes presented antiproliferative action against these cancer cells at the average concentration of 30 μg/mL. Phytochemicals encapsulated in PEGylated liposomes induced greater reduction in the viability of tumor cells. In addition, bioassay-s measured the cytotoxicity of copaiba resin oil (Copaifera sabulicola) in liposomes (conventional and PEGylated), which was also checked against pheochromocytoma PC12 cells. Its safety was verified in normal rat astrocytes. The results indicate that liposomes encapsulating copaiba oil showed cytotoxic activity against the studied tumor strains in a dose-dependent fashion, demonstrating their potential applications as a chemotherapeutic bioactive formulation.

Efficacy of Polydeoxyribonucleotide in Promoting the Healing of Diabetic Wounds in a Murine Model of Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetes: A Pilot Experiment

We assessed the efficacy of polydeoxyribonucleotide (PDRN) in accelerating the healing of diabetic wounds in a murine model of streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes. After the creation of diabetic wounds, the mice of the PDRN SC, PDRN IP and PBS groups received a subcutaneous, an intra-peritoneal injection of PDRN and a subcutaneous injection of PBS, respectively. After euthanasia, time-dependent changes in the wound diameter and histologic scores were measured and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and collagen types I and III were assessed for their expression levels. The PDRN SC and the PDRN IP groups showed a significantly smaller diameter of diabetic wounds, significantly higher histologic scores, a significantly greater expression of VEGF, a significantly lower expression of TGF-β1 and a significantly greater expression of collagen types I and III as compared with the PBS group (p < 0.05 or 0.0001). In conclusion, PDRN might be effective in promoting the healing of diabetic wounds in a murine model of STZ-induced diabetes.

Disorders of cancer metabolism: The therapeutic potential of cannabinoids

Abnormal energy metabolism, as one of the important hallmarks of cancer, was induced by multiple carcinogenic factors and tumor-specific microenvironments. It comprises aerobic glycolysis, de novo lipid biosynthesis, and glutamine-dependent anaplerosis. Considering that metabolic reprogramming provides various nutrients for tumor survival and development, it has been considered a potential target for cancer therapy. Cannabinoids have been shown to exhibit a variety of anticancer activities by unclear mechanisms. This paper first reviews the recent progress of related signaling pathways (reactive oxygen species (ROS), AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha (HIF-1α), and p53) mediating the reprogramming of cancer metabolism (including glucose metabolism, lipid metabolism, and amino acid metabolism). Then we comprehensively explore the latest discoveries and possible mechanisms of the anticancer effects of cannabinoids through the regulation of the above-mentioned related signaling pathways, to provide new targets and insights for cancer prevention and treatment.

The Synthetic Cannabinoid URB447 Exerts Antitumor and Antimetastatic Effect in Melanoma and Colon Cancer

The endocannabinoid system is widespread through the body and carries out a wide variety of functions. However, its involvement in other pathologies, such as cancer, still needs further attention. We aim to investigate the role of CB2 receptor during melanoma and colorectal cancer (CRC) aggressiveness and metastatic growth in the liver. We used the synthetic cannabinoid URB447, a known CB2 agonist and CB1 antagonist drug, and studied prometastatic ability of mouse B16 melanoma and MCA38 CRC cells, by means of proliferation, apoptosis, cell cycle, migration and matrix degradation in vitro upon URB447 treatment. We reported a dose-dependent viability decrease in both tumor types. This result is partly mediated by apoptotic cell death and cell cycle arrest in G1/G0 phase, as observed through flow cytometry. Melanoma and CRC cell migration was affected in a dose-dependent fashion as observed through scratch assay, whereas the secretion of matrix degrading proteins metalloprotease 2 (MMP2) and 9 (MMP9) in tumor cells did not significantly change. Moreover, daily treatment of tumor bearing mice with URB447 decreased the development of liver metastasis in a melanoma model in vivo. This proof of concept study points out to the synthetic cannabinoid URB447 as a potential candidate for deeper studies to confirm its potential as antitumor therapy and liver metastasis treatment for CRC and melanoma.

β-Caryophyllene Counteracts Chemoresistance Induced by Cigarette Smoke in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer MDA-MB-468 Cells

Exposure to cigarette smoke (CS) has been associated with an increased risk of fatal breast cancers and recurrence, along with chemoresistance and chemotherapy impairment. This strengthens the interest in chemopreventive agents to be exploited both in healthy and oncological subjects to prevent or repair CS damage. In the present study, we evaluated the chemopreventive properties of the natural sesquiterpene β-caryophyllene towards the damage induced by cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) in triple negative breast cancer MDA-MB-468 cells. Particularly, we assessed the ability of the sesquiterpene to interfere with the mechanisms exploited by CSC to promote cell survival and chemoresistance, including genomic instability, cell cycle progress, autophagy/apoptosis, cell migration and related pathways. β-Caryophyllene was found to be able to increase the CSC-induced death of MDA-MB-468 cells, likely triggering oxidative stress, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis; moreover, it hindered cell recovery, autophagy activation and cell migration; at last, a marked inhibition of the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) activation was highlighted: this could represent a key mechanism of the chemoprevention by β-caryophyllene. Although further studies are required to confirm the in vivo efficacy of β-caryophyllene, the present results suggest a novel strategy to reduce the harmful effect of smoke in cancer patients and to improve the survival expectations in breast cancer women.

Influence of seasonal variation on the chemical composition and biological activities of essential oil from Eugenia pohliana DC leaves

The purpose of this study was to analyse the influence of seasonal variation on the chemical composition and antimicrobial, antioxidant and cytotoxicity activities of the essential oil (EO) extracted from the leaves of Eugenia pohliana. Chemical characterisation of the samples- by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry- found 35 and 38 components for summer and winter, respectively, of the EO from E. pohliana leaves, totaling 47 different compounds. Analysis of antioxidant capacity (DPPH, ABTS and TAC) revealed that the summer EO showed greater free radical scavenging capacity than the winter. Similarly, the summer EO exhibited superior antimicrobial potential (MIC=128-512 μg/mL and MMC=128-1024 μg/mL, compared to the winter EO (128-2048 μg/mL and 256-2048 μg/mL, respectively). Results showed that both oils had a low potential to cause haemolysis. This study provides new scientific evidence on the influence of seasonality on the pharmacological properties of E. pohliana leaves and its potential for the development of herbal medicines.

Transcription Profile and Pathway Analysis of the Endocannabinoid Receptor Inverse Agonist AM630 in the Core and Infiltrative Boundary of Human Glioblastoma Cells

Background: We have previously reported that the endocannabinoid receptor inverse agonist AM630 is a potent inhibitor of isocitrade dehydrogenase-1 wild-type glioblastoma (GBM) core tumour cell proliferation. To uncover the mechanism behind the anti-tumour effects we have performed a transcriptional analysis of AM630 activity both in the tumour core cells (U87) and the invasive margin cells (GIN-8), the latter representing a better proxy of post-surgical residual disease. Results: The core and invasive margin cells exhibited markedly different gene expression profiles and only the core cells had high expression of a potential AM630 target, the CB1 receptor. Both cell types had moderate expression of the HTR2B serotonin receptor, a reported AM630 target. We found that the AM630 driven transcriptional response was substantially higher in the central cells than in the invasive margin cells, with the former driving the up regulation of immune response and the down regulation of cell cycle and metastatic pathways and correlating with transcriptional responses driven by established anti-neoplastics as well as serotonin receptor antagonists. Conclusion: Our results highlight the different gene sets involved in the core and invasive margin cell lines derived from GBM and an associated marked difference in responsiveness to AM630. Our findings identify AM630 as an anti-neoplastic drug in the context of the core cells, showing a high correlation with the activity of known antiproliferative drugs. However, we reveal a key set of similarities between the two cell lines that may inform therapeutic intervention.

Cannabinoids as anticancer drugs: current status of preclinical research

Drugs that target the endocannabinoid system are of interest as pharmacological options to combat cancer and to improve the life quality of cancer patients. From this perspective, cannabinoid compounds have been successfully tested as a systemic therapeutic option in a number of preclinical models over the past decades. As a result of these efforts, a large body of data suggests that the anticancer effects of cannabinoids are exerted at multiple levels of tumour progression via different signal transduction mechanisms. Accordingly, there is considerable evidence for cannabinoid-mediated inhibition of tumour cell proliferation, tumour invasion and metastasis, angiogenesis and chemoresistance, as well as induction of apoptosis and autophagy. Further studies showed that cannabinoids could be potential combination partners for established chemotherapeutic agents or other therapeutic interventions in cancer treatment. Research in recent years has yielded several compounds that exert promising effects on tumour cells and tissues in addition to the psychoactive Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, such as the non-psychoactive phytocannabinoid cannabidiol and inhibitors of endocannabinoid degradation. This review provides an up-to-date overview of the potential of cannabinoids as inhibitors of tumour growth and spread as demonstrated in preclinical studies.

The Mediterranean Diet as a Source of Bioactive Molecules with Cannabinomimetic Activity in Prevention and Therapy Strategy

The endocannabinoid system is a complex lipid signaling network that has evolved to be a key regulator of pro-homeostatic pathways for the organism. Its involvement in numerous processes has rendered it a very suitable target for pharmacological studies regarding metabolic syndrome, obesity and other lifestyle-related diseases. Cannabinomimetic molecules have been found in a large variety of foods, most of which are normally present in the Mediterranean diet. The majority of these compounds belong to the terpene and polyphenol classes. While it is known that they do not necessarily act directly on the cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2, their ability to regulate their expression levels has already been shown in some disease-related models, as well as their ability to modulate the activity of other components of the system. In this review, evidence was gathered to support the idea that phytocannabinoid dietary intake may indeed be a viable strategy for disease prevention and may be helpful in maintaining the health status. In an era where personalized nutrition is becoming more and more a reality, having new therapeutic targets could become an important resource.

Reduction of oxidative stress blunts the NLRP3 inflammatory cascade in LPS stimulated human gingival fibroblasts and oral mucosal epithelial cells

The therapeutic armamentarium for the treatment of oral mucositis is very poor. Catechin and baicalin are two natural flavonoids that have been individually reported to have a curative potential. Flavocoxid is a mixed extract containing baicalin and catechin showing antioxidant effects and anti-inflammatory activity mainly due to a dual inhibition of inducible cyclooxygenase (COX-2), 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) and NLRP3 pathway. The aim of this study was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects of flavocoxid in an "in vitro" model of oral mucositis induced by triggering an inflammatory phenotype in human gingival fibroblasts (GF) and human oral mucosal epithelial cells (EC). GF and EC were challenged with lipopolysaccharide (LPS 2 μg/ml) alone or in combination with flavocoxid (32 μg/ml). Flavocoxid increased Nrf2, prompted a marked reduction in malondialdehyde levels and reduced the expression of COX-2 and 5-LOX together with PGE₂, and LTB₄ levels. Flavocoxid caused also a great decrease in the expression of NF-κB and turned off NLRP3 inflammasome and its downstream effectors signal, as caspase-1, IL-1β and IL-18 in both GF and EC cells stimulated with LPS. These results suggest a correlation between oxidative stress and NLRP3 activation and indicate that flavocoxid suppresses the inflammatory storm that accompanies oral mucositis. This preclinical evidence deserves to be confirmed in a clinical setting.

Beta-Caryophyllene Exhibits Anti-Proliferative Effects through Apoptosis Induction and Cell Cycle Modulation in Multiple Myeloma Cells

Cannabinoid receptors, which are widely distributed in the body, have been considered as possible pharmacological targets for the management of several tumors. Cannabinoid type 2 receptors (CB2Rs) belong to the G protein-coupled receptor family and are mainly expressed in hematopoietic and immune cells, such as B-cells, T-cells, and macrophages; thus, CB2R activation might be useful for treating cancers affecting plasma cells, such as multiple myeloma (MM). Previous studies have shown that CB2R stimulation may have anti-proliferative effects; therefore, the purpose of the present study was to explore the antitumor effect of beta-caryophyllene (BCP), a CB2R agonist, in an in vitro model of MM. Dexamethasone-resistant (MM.1R) and sensitive (MM.1S) human multiple myeloma cell lines were used in this study. Cells were treated with different concentrations of BCP for 24 h, and a group of cells was pre-incubated with AM630, a specific CB2R antagonist. BCP treatment reduced cell proliferation through CB2R stimulation; notably, BCP considerably increased the pro-apoptotic protein Bax and decreased the anti-apoptotic molecule Bcl-2. Furthermore, an increase in caspase 3 protein levels was detected following BCP incubation, thus demonstrating its anti-proliferative effect through apoptosis activation. In addition, BCP regulated AKT, Wnt1, and beta-catenin expression, showing that CB2R stimulation may decrease cancer cell proliferation by modulating Wnt/β-catenin signaling. These effects were counteracted by AM630 co-incubation, thus confirming that BCP's mechanism of action is mainly related to CB2R modulation. A decrease in β-catenin regulated the impaired cell cycle and especially promoted cyclin D1 and CDK 4/6 reduction. Taken together, these data revealed that BCP might have significant and effective anti-cancer and anti-proliferative effects in MM cells by activating apoptosis, modulating different molecular pathways, and downregulating the cell cycle.

Role of Caryophyllane Sesquiterpenes in the Entourage Effect of Felina 32 Hemp Inflorescence Phytocomplex in Triple Negative MDA-MB-468 Breast Cancer Cells

Cannabis sativa L. crops have been traditionally exploited as sources of fibers, nutrients, and bioactive phytochemicals of medical interest. In the present study, two terpene-rich organic extracts, namely FOJ and FOS, obtained from Felina 32 hemp inflorescences collected in June and September, respectively, have been studied for their in vitro anticancer properties. Particularly, their cytotoxicity was evaluated in different cancer cell lines, and the possible entourage effect between nonintoxicating phytocannabinoids (cannabidiol and cannabichromene) and caryophyllane sesquiterpenes (β-caryophyllene, β-caryophyllene oxide and α-humulene), as identified at GC/MS analysis, was characterized. Modulation of cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors was studied as a mechanistic hypothesis. Results highlighted marked cytotoxic effects of FOJ, FOS, and pure compounds in triple negative breast cancer MDA-MB-468 cells, likely mediated by a CB2 receptor activation. Cannabidiol was the main cytotoxic constituent, although low levels of caryophyllane sesquiterpenes and cannabichromene induced potentiating effects; the presence in the extracts of unknown antagonistic compounds has been highlighted too. These results suggest an interest in Felina 32 hemp inflorescences as a source of bioactive phytocomplexes with anticancer properties and strengthen the importance of considering the possible involvement of minor terpenes, such as caryophyllane sesquiterpenes, in the entourage effect of hemp-based extracts.

Polydeoxyribonucleotide: A Promising Biological Platform to Accelerate Impaired Skin Wound Healing

The normal wound healing process is characterized by a complex, highly integrated cascade of events, requiring the interactions of many cell types, including inflammatory cells, fibroblasts, keratinocytes and endothelial cells, as well as the involvement of growth factors and enzymes. However, several diseases such as diabetes, thermal injury and ischemia could lead to an impaired wound healing process characterized by wound hypoxia, high levels of oxygen radicals, reduced angiogenesis, decreased collagen synthesis and organization. Polydeoxyribonucleotide (PDRN) has been used to improve wound healing through local and systemic administration thanks to its ability to promote cell migration and growth, angiogenesis, and to reduce inflammation on impaired wound healing models in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies. In light of all these observations, the aim of this review is to provide a full overview of PDRN applications on skin regeneration. We reviewed papers published in the last 25 years on PubMed, inserting “polydeoxyribonucleotide and wound healing” as the main search term. All data obtained proved the ability of PDRN in promoting physiological tissue repair through adenosine A_2A receptor activation and salvage pathway suggesting that PDRN has proven encouraging results in terms of healing time, wound regeneration and absence of side effects.

Cannabinoids-A New Perspective in Adjuvant Therapy for Pulmonary Hypertension

Currently, no treatment can completely cure pulmonary hypertension (PH), which can lead to right ventricular failure and, consequently, death. Therefore, searching for new therapies remains important. Increased resistance in pulmonary circulation is mainly caused by the excessive contraction and proliferation of small pulmonary arteries. Cannabinoids, a group of lipophilic compounds that all interact with cannabinoid receptors, exert a pulmonary vasodilatory effect through several different mechanisms, including mechanisms that depend on vascular endothelium and/or receptor-based mechanisms, and may also have anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory properties. The vasodilatory effect is important in regulating pulmonary resistance, which can improve patients’ quality of life. Moreover, experimental studies on the effects of cannabidiol (plant-derived, non-psychoactive cannabinoid) in animal PH models have shown that cannabidiol reduces right ventricular systolic pressure and excessive remodelling and decreases pulmonary vascular hypertrophy and pulmonary vascular resistance. Due to the potentially beneficial effects of cannabinoids on pulmonary circulation and PH, in this work, we review whether cannabinoids can be used as an adjunctive therapy for PH. However, clinical trials are still needed to recommend the use of cannabinoids in the treatment of PH.

TBK1 Inhibitor Exerts Antiproliferative Effect on Glioblastoma Multiforme Cells

Glioma are common malignant brain tumors, among which glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) has the worst prognosis. Different studies of GBM revealed that targeting nuclear factor B (NF-B) induced an attenuation tumor proliferation and prolonged cell survival. TBK1 {TANK [TRAF (TNF (tumor-necrosis-factor) receptor-associated factor)-associated NF-B activator]-binding kinase 1} is a serine/threonine protein kinase, and it is a member of the IB kinase (IKK) family involved in NF-B pathway activation. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential effect of BX795, an inhibitor of TBK1, in an in vitro and ex vivo model of GBM. GBM cell lines (U87 and U138) and primary GBM cells were treated with different concentrations of BX795 at different time points (24, 48, and 72h) to evaluate cell viability, autophagy, inflammation, and apoptosis. Our results demonstrated that BX795 10 M was able to reduce cell viability, showing antiproliferative effect in U87, U138, and primary GBM cells. Moreover, treatment with BX795 10 M increased the proapoptotic proteins Bax, p53, caspase 3, and caspase 9, whereas the antiapoptotic Bcl-2 expression was reduced. Additionally, our results showed a marked decrease in autophagy following BX795 treatment, reducing Atg 7, Atg 5/12, and AKT expression. The anti-inflammatory effect of BX795 was demonstrated by a significantly reduction in NIK, IKK, and TNF- expression, accompanied by a downregulation of angiogenesis. Furthermore, in primary GBM cell, BX795 10 M was able to reduce TBK1 pathway activation and SOX3 expression. In conclusion, these findings showed that TBK1 is involved in GBM proliferation, demonstrating that the inhibitor BX795, thanks to its abilities, could improve therapeutic strategies for GBM treatment.

Mexican Oregano (Lippia graveolens Kunth) as Source of Bioactive Compounds: A Review

Lippia graveolens is a traditional crop and a rich source of bioactive compounds with various properties (e.g., antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, UV defense, anti-glycemic, and cytotoxicity) that is primarily cultivated for essential oil recovery. The isolated bioactive compounds could be useful as additives in the functional food, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. Carvacrol, thymol, β-caryophyllene, and p-cymene are terpene compounds contained in oregano essential oil (OEO); flavonoids such as quercetin O-hexoside, pinocembrin, and galangin are flavonoids found in oregano extracts. Furthermore, thermoresistant compounds that remain in the plant matrix following a thermal process can be priced in terms of the circular economy. By using better and more selective extraction conditions, the bioactive compounds present in Mexican oregano can be studied as potential inhibitors of COVID-19. Also, research on extraction technologies should continue to ensure a higher quality of bioactive compounds while preventing an undesired chemical shift (e.g., hydrolysis). The oregano fractions can be used in the food, health, and agricultural industries.

MAO-A Inhibition by Metaxalone Reverts IL-1β-Induced Inflammatory Phenotype in Microglial Cells

Experimental and clinical studies have suggested that several neurological disorders are associated with the occurrence of central nervous system neuroinflammation. Metaxalone is an FDA-approved muscle relaxant that has been reported to inhibit monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A). The aim of this study was to investigate whether metaxalone might exert antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects in HMC3 microglial cells. An inflammatory phenotype was induced in HMC3 microglial cells through stimulation with interleukin-1β (IL-1β). Control cells and IL-1β-stimulated cells were subsequently treated with metaxalone (10, 20, and 40 µM) for six hours. IL-1β stimulated the release of the pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), but reduced the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-13 (IL-13). The upstream signal consisted of an increased priming of nuclear factor-kB (NF-kB), blunted peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α) expression. IL-1β also augmented MAO-A expression/activity and malondialdehyde levels and decreased Nrf2 mRNA expression and protein levels. Metaxalone decreased MAO-A activity and expression, reduced NF-kB, TNF-α, and IL-6, enhanced IL-13, and also increased PPARγ, PGC-1α, and Nrf2 expression. The present experimental study suggests that metaxalone has potential for the treatment of several neurological disorders associated with neuroinflammation.

MicroRNA-361-5p slows down gliomas development through regulating UBR5 to elevate ATMIN protein expression

MicroRNA (miR)-361-5p has been studied to suppress gliomas development. Based on that, an insight into the regulatory mechanism of miR-361-5p in gliomas was supplemented from ubiquitin protein ligase E3 component N-recognin 5 (UBR5)-mediated ubiquitination of ataxia-telangiectasia mutated interactor (ATMIN). miR-361-5p, ATMIN, and UBR5 levels were clinically analyzed in gliomas tissues, which were further validated in gliomas cell lines. Loss/gain-of-function method was applied to determine the roles of miR-361-5p and UBR5 in gliomas, as to cell viability, migration, invasion, colony formation ability, and apoptosis in vitro and tumorigenesis in vivo. The relationship between miR-361-5p and UBR5 was verified and the interaction between UBR5 and ATMIN was explored. It was detected that reduced miR-361-5p and ATMIN and enhanced UBR5 levels showed in gliomas. Elevating miR-361-5p was repressive in gliomas progression. UBR5 was directly targeted by miR-361-5p. UBR5 can ubiquitinate ATMIN. miR-361-5p suppressed gliomas by regulating UBR5-mediated ubiquitination of ATMIN. Downregulating UBR5 impeded gliomas tumor growth in vivo. Upregulating miR-361-5p targets UBR5 to promote ATMIN protein expression, thus to recline the malignant phenotype of gliomas cells.

KYP-2047, an Inhibitor of Prolyl-Oligopeptidase, Reduces GlioBlastoma Proliferation through Angiogenesis and Apoptosis Modulation

Simple Summary

Glioblastoma (GB) is the most aggressive brain tumor characterized by necrosis, excessive proliferation, and invasiveness. Despite relevant progress in conventional treatments, the survival rate for patients with GB remains low. The present study investigated the potential effect of KYP-2047, an inhibitor of the prolyl-oligopeptidase (POP or PREP), in an in vivo U87-xenograft model and in an in vitro study on human GB cells. This study demonstrated the abilities of KYP-2047 to counteract and reduce GB progression through angiogenesis and apoptosis modulation.

Abstract

Glioblastoma (GB) is the most aggressive tumor of the central nervous system (CNS), characterized by excessive proliferation, necrosis and invasiveness. The survival rate for patients with GB still remains low. Angiogenesis and apoptosis play a key role in the development of GB. Thus, the modulation of angiogenesis and apoptosis processes represent a possible strategy to counteract GB progression. This study aimed to investigate the potential effect of KYP-2047, an inhibitor of the prolyl-oligopeptidase (POP), known to modulate angiogenesis, in an in vivo U87-xenograft model and in an in vitro study on human GB cells. Our results showed that KYP-2047 at doses of 2.5 mg/kg and 5 mg/kg was able to reduce tumor burden in the xenograft-model. Moreover, KYP-2047 significantly reduced vascular endothelial-growth-factor (VEGF), angiopoietins (Ang) and endothelial-nitric-oxide synthase (eNOS) expression. In vitro study revealed that KYP-2047 at different concentrations reduced GB cells’ viability. Additionally, KYP-2047 at the concentrations of 50 µM and 100 µM was able to increase the pro-apoptotic protein Bax, p53 and caspase-3 expression whereas Bcl-2 expression was reduced. Thus, KYP-2047 could represent a potential therapeutic treatment to counteract or reduce GB progression, thanks its abilities to modulate angiogenesis and apoptosis pathways.

Poly (ADP-Ribose) Polymerase Inhibitor, ABT888, Improved Cisplatin Effect in Human Oral Cell Carcinoma

Cisplatin is one of the chemotherapeutic drugs used for the management of oral carcinoma, in which combined therapies are estimated to exert superior therapeutic efficacy compared with monotherapy. It is known that poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is implicated in a multiplicity of cellular activities, such as DNA repair and cell death. Based on these, PARP inhibitors are used for the treatment of cancers; however, the capacity of PARP inhibitors associated to anti-cancer drugs have not been completely assessed in oral carcinoma. Here, we evaluated the effects of PARPi veliparib (ABT888) in combination with cisplatin on the survival of three human oral cancer cell lines HSC-2, Ca9-22 and CAL27 and we observed the effects of ABT888 alone or in combination with cisplatin on apoptosis and DNA damage repair mechanism. The results obtained showed that ABT888 induces a cytotoxicity effect on cell viability increasing the apoptotic pathway as well as DNA strand break; moreover, our results displayed the effects with cisplatin in a dose-dependent manner. Therefore, our results indicate PARP inhibitors as adjuvants for therapeutic strategy of oral cancer.

A focused review on CB2 receptor-selective pharmacological properties and therapeutic potential of β-caryophyllene, a dietary cannabinoid

The endocannabinoid system (ECS), a conserved physiological system emerged as a novel pharmacological target for its significant role and potential therapeutic benefits ranging from neurological diseases to cancer. Among both, CB1 and CB2R types, CB2R have received attention for its pharmacological effects as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory and antiapoptotic that can be achieved without causing psychotropic adverse effects through CB1R. The ligands activate CB2R are of endogenous, synthetic and plant origin. In recent years, β-caryophyllene (BCP), a natural bicyclic sesquiterpene in cannabis as well as non-cannabis plants, has received attention due to its selective agonist property on CB2R. BCP has been well studied in a variety of pathological conditions mediating CB2R selective agonist property. The focus of the present manuscript is to represent the CB2R selective agonist mediated pharmacological mechanisms and therapeutic potential of BCP. The present narrative review summarizes insights into the CB2R-selective pharmacological properties and therapeutic potential of BCP such as cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, nephroprotective, gastroprotective, chemopreventive, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulator. The available evidences suggest that BCP, can be an important candidate of plant origin endowed with CB2R selective properties that may provide a pharmacological rationale for its pharmacotherapeutic application and pharmaceutical development like a drug. Additionally, given the wide availability in edible plants and dietary use, with safety, and no toxicity, BCP can be promoted as a nutraceutical and functional food for general health and well-being. Further, studies are needed to explore pharmacological and pharmaceutical opportunities for therapeutic and preventive applications of use of BCP in human diseases.

β-Caryophyllene, A Natural Dietary CB2 Receptor Selective Cannabinoid can be a Candidate to Target the Trinity of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation in COVID-19

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19), caused by novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is an ongoing pandemic and presents a public health emergency. It has affected millions of people and continues to affect more, despite tremendous social preventive measures. Identifying candidate drugs for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19 is crucial. The pathogenesis and the complications with advanced infection mainly involve an immune-inflammatory cascade. Therefore, therapeutic strategy relies on suppressing infectivity and inflammation, along with immune modulation. One of the most promising therapeutic targets for the modulation of immune-inflammatory responses is the endocannabinoid system, particularly the activation of cannabinoid type 2 receptors (CB2R), a G-protein coupled receptor which mediates the anti-inflammatory properties by modulating numerous signaling pathways. To pharmacologically activate the CB2 receptors, a naturally occurring cannabinoid ligand, beta-caryophyllene (BCP), received attention due to its potent anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and immunomodulatory properties. BCP is recognized as a full selective functional agonist on CB2 receptors and produces therapeutic effects by activating CB2 and the nuclear receptors, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). BCP is regarded as the first dietary cannabinoid with abundant presence across cannabis and non-cannabis plants, including spices and other edible plants. BCP showed tissue protective properties and favorably modulates numerous signaling pathways and inhibits inflammatory mediators, including cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules, prostanoids, and eicosanoids. Based on its pharmacological properties, molecular mechanisms, and the therapeutic potential of BCP as an immunomodulator, anti-inflammatory, organ-protective, and antiviral, we hypothesize that BCP could be a promising therapeutic and/or preventive candidate to target the triad of infection, immunity, and inflammation in COVID-19. In line with numerous studies that proposed the potential of cannabinoids in COVID-19, BCP may be a novel candidate compound for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical development due to its unique functional receptor selectivity, wide availability and accessibility, dietary bioavailability, nonpsychoactivity, and negligible toxicity along with druggable properties, including favorable pharmacokinetic and physicochemical properties. Based on reasonable pharmacological mechanisms and therapeutic properties, we speculate that BCP has potential to be investigated against COVID-19 and will inspire further preclinical and clinical studies.

Improvement of Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Dysfunction by β-Caryophyllene: A Focus on the Nervous System

Mitochondrial dysfunction results in a series of defective cellular events, including decreased adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production, enhanced reactive oxygen species (ROS) output, and altered proteastasis and cellular quality control. An enhanced output of ROS may damage mitochondrial components, such as mitochondrial DNA and elements of the electron transport chain, resulting in the loss of proper electrochemical gradient across the mitochondrial inner membrane and an ensuing shutdown of mitochondrial energy production. Neurons have an increased demand for ATP and oxygen, and thus are more prone to damage induced by mitochondrial dysfunction. Mitochondrial dysfunction, damaged electron transport chains, altered membrane permeability and Ca²⁺ homeostasis, and impaired mitochondrial defense systems induced by oxidative stress, are pathological changes involved in neurodegenerative disorders. A growing body of evidence suggests that the use of antioxidants could stabilize mitochondria and thus may be suitable for preventing neuronal loss. Numerous natural products exhibit the potential to counter oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction; however, science is still looking for a breakthrough in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. β-caryophyllene is a bicyclic sesquiterpene, and an active principle of essential oils derived from a large number of spices and food plants. As a selective cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2) agonist, several studies have reported it as possessing numerous pharmacological activities such as antibacterial (e.g., Helicobacter pylori), antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic (e.g., neuropathic pain), anti-neurodegenerative and anticancer properties. The present review mainly focuses on the potential of β-caryophyllene in reducing oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, and its possible links with neuroprotection.

PDRN, a natural bioactive compound, blunts inflammation and positively reprograms healing genes in an "in vitro" model of oral mucositis

Oral mucositis is a side effect hard to treat following high dose chemotherapy or radiotherapy. Adenosine A_2A receptor stimulation blocks NF-κB and boosts the Wnt/β-catenin signaling, thus blunting inflammation and triggering growth factor codifying genes. Polydeoxyribonucleotide (PDRN) is a registered drug that activates the A_2A receptor. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate PDRN effects in an "in vitro" model of oral mucositis induced by prompting an inflammatory phenotype in human gingival fibroblasts (GF) and human oral mucosal epithelial cells (EC). GF and EC were stimulated with LPS (2 μg/ml) alone or in combination with i) PDRN (100 μg/ml); ii) PDRN plus ZM241385 (1 μM) as an A_2AR antagonist; iii) CGS21680 (1 μM) as an A_2AR agonist. LPS boosted NF-κB, TNF-α and IL-6 expression, decreased IL-10 levels and downregulated both Wnt/β-catenin, VEGF and EGF expression. PDRN reverted the LPS-induced phenotype as well as CGS21680. Co-incubation with ZM241385 abolished PDRN effects, thus confirming A_2A receptor involvement in PDRN mechanism of action. These results suggest that PDRN efficacy may be due to a "dual mode" of action: NF-κB inhibition and Wnt/β-catenin signaling activation. However, these interesting findings need to be confirmed by animal and clinical studies.

Health Potential of Aloe vera against Oxidative Stress Induced Corneal Damage: An "In Vitro" Study

Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy (FECD) is characterized by the gradual deterioration of corneal endothelial cells (CECs) and is the most common cause of corneal transplantation worldwide. CECs apoptosis caused by oxidative stress plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of FECD. Antioxidant compounds have been of considerable significance as a candidate treatment in the management of corneal diseases. Based on these findings, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of an aloe extract with antioxidant properties, in an “in vitro” model of FECD. Human corneal epithelial (HCE) cells were preincubated with aloe extract 100 μg/mL, two hours before hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) stimulus. H₂O₂ challenge significantly reduced the cell viability, increased the generation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and malondialdehyde levels. Moreover, m-RNA expression and activity of Nrf-2, Catalase and Superoxide dismutase (SOD) were reduced together with an enhanced expression of IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), IL-6, and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2). Furthermore, Bcl-2, Caspase-3 and Caspase-8 expression were down-regulated while Bax was up-regulated by H₂O₂ stimulus. Aloe extract blunted the oxidative stress-induced inflammatory cascade triggered by H₂O₂ and modulated apoptosis. Aloe extract defends HCE cells from H₂O₂-induced injury possibly due its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity, indicating that eye drops containing aloe extract may be used as an adjunctive treatment for FECD.

NLRP3 Inflammasome: A New Pharmacological Target for Reducing Testicular Damage Associated with Varicocele

Many bioactive natural compounds are being increasingly used for therapeutics and nutraceutical applications to counteract male infertility, particularly varicocele. The roles of selenium and Polydeoxyribonucleotide (PDRN) were investigated in an experimental model of varicocele, with particular regard to the role of NLRP3 inflammasome. Male rats underwent sham operation and were daily administered with vehicle, seleno-L-methionine (Se), PDRN, and with the association Se-PDRN. Another group of rats were operated for varicocele. After twenty-eight days, sham and varicocele rats were sacrificed and both testes were weighted and analyzed. All the other rats were challenged for one month with the same compounds. In varicocele animals, lower testosterone levels, testes weight, NLRP3 inflammasome, IL-1β and caspase-1 increased gene expression were demonstrated. TUNEL assay showed an increased number of apoptotic cells. Structural and ultrastructural damage to testes was also shown. PDRN alone significantly improved all considered parameters more than Se. The Se-PDRN association significantly improved all morphological parameters, significantly increased testosterone levels, and reduced NLRP3 inflammasome, caspase-1 and IL-1β expression and TUNEL-positive cell numbers. Our results suggest that NLRP3 inflammasome can be considered an interesting target in varicocele and that Se-PDRN may be a new medical approach in support to surgery.

Relevance of Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptors in Multitarget Paradigm Associated with the Endocannabinoid System

Cannabinoids have shown to exert their therapeutic actions through a variety of targets. These include not only the canonical cannabinoid receptors CB1R and CB2R but also related orphan G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), ligand-gated ion channels, transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, metabolic enzymes, and nuclear receptors. In this review, we aim to summarize reported compounds exhibiting their therapeutic effects upon the modulation of CB1R and/or CB2R and the nuclear peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). Concomitant actions at CBRs and PPARα or PPARγ subtypes have shown to mediate antiobesity, analgesic, antitumoral, or neuroprotective properties of a variety of phytogenic, endogenous, and synthetic cannabinoids. The relevance of this multitargeting mechanism of action has been analyzed in the context of diverse pathologies. Synergistic effects triggered by combinatorial treatment with ligands that modulate the aforementioned targets have also been considered. This literature overview provides structural and pharmacological insights for the further development of dual cannabinoids for specific disorders.

Protective Effects of (E)-β-Caryophyllene (BCP) in Chronic Inflammation

(E)-β-caryophyllene (BCP) is a bicyclic sesquiterpene widely distributed in the plant kingdom, where it contributes a unique aroma to essential oils and has a pivotal role in the survival and evolution of higher plants. Recent studies provided evidence for protective roles of BCP in animal cells, highlighting its possible use as a novel therapeutic tool. Experimental results show the ability of BCP to reduce pro-inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor-alfa (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), thus ameliorating chronic pathologies characterized by inflammation and oxidative stress, in particular metabolic and neurological diseases. Through the binding to CB2 cannabinoid receptors and the interaction with members of the family of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), BCP shows beneficial effects on obesity, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease/nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NAFLD/NASH) liver diseases, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, pain and other nervous system disorders. This review describes the current knowledge on the biosynthesis and natural sources of BCP, and reviews its role and mechanisms of action in different inflammation-related metabolic and neurologic disorders.

Chemopreventive Potential of Caryophyllane Sesquiterpenes: An Overview of Preliminary Evidence

Chemoprevention is referred to as a strategy to inhibit, suppress, or reverse tumor development and progression in healthy people along with high-risk subjects and oncologic patients through using pharmacological or natural substances. Numerous phytochemicals have been widely described in the literature to possess chemopreventive properties, although their clinical usefulness remains to be defined. Among them, caryophyllane sesquiterpenes are natural compounds widely occurring in nature kingdoms, especially in plants, fungi, and marine environments. Several structures, characterized by a common caryophyllane skeleton with further rearrangements, have been identified, but those isolated from plant essential oils, including β-caryophyllene, β-caryophyllene oxide, α-humulene, and isocaryophyllene, have attracted the greatest pharmacological attention. Emerging evidence has outlined a complex polypharmacological profile of caryophyllane sesquiterpenes characterized by blocking, suppressing, chemosensitizing, and cytoprotective properties, which suggests a possible usefulness of these natural substances in cancer chemoprevention for both preventive and adjuvant purposes. In the present review, the scientific knowledge about the chemopreventive properties of caryophyllane sesquiterpenes and the mechanisms involved have been collected and discussed; moreover, possible structure-activity relationships have been highlighted. Although further high-quality studies are required, the promising preclinical findings and the safe pharmacological profile encourage further studies to define a clinical usefulness of caryophyllane sesquiterpenes in primary, secondary, or tertiary chemoprevention.

Anti-Cancer Potential of Cannabinoids, Terpenes, and Flavonoids Present in Cannabis

In recent years, and even more since its legalization in several jurisdictions, cannabis and the endocannabinoid system have received an increasing amount of interest related to their potential exploitation in clinical settings. Cannabinoids have been suggested and shown to be effective in the treatment of various conditions. In cancer, the endocannabinoid system is altered in numerous types of tumours and can relate to cancer prognosis and disease outcome. Additionally, cannabinoids display anticancer effects in several models by suppressing the proliferation, migration and/or invasion of cancer cells, as well as tumour angiogenesis. However, the therapeutic use of cannabinoids is currently limited to the treatment of symptoms and pain associated with chemotherapy, while their potential use as cytotoxic drugs in chemotherapy still requires validation in patients. Along with cannabinoids, cannabis contains several other compounds that have also been shown to exert anti-tumorigenic actions. The potential anti-cancer effects of cannabinoids, terpenes and flavonoids, present in cannabis, are explored in this literature review.

Autophagy as a Potential Therapy for Malignant Glioma

Glioma is the most frequent and aggressive type of brain neoplasm, being anaplastic astrocytoma (AA) and glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), its most malignant forms. The survival rate in patients with these neoplasms is 15 months after diagnosis, despite a diversity of treatments, including surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy. The resistance of GBM to various therapies is due to a highly mutated genome; these genetic changes induce a de-regulation of several signaling pathways and result in higher cell proliferation rates, angiogenesis, invasion, and a marked resistance to apoptosis; this latter trait is a hallmark of highly invasive tumor cells, such as glioma cells. Due to a defective apoptosis in gliomas, induced autophagic death can be an alternative to remove tumor cells. Paradoxically, however, autophagy in cancer can promote either a cell death or survival. Modulating the autophagic pathway as a death mechanism for cancer cells has prompted the use of both inhibitors and autophagy inducers. The autophagic process, either as a cancer suppressing or inducing mechanism in high-grade gliomas is discussed in this review, along with therapeutic approaches to inhibit or induce autophagy in pre-clinical and clinical studies, aiming to increase the efficiency of conventional treatments to remove glioma neoplastic cells.

β-Caryophyllene Reduces the Inflammatory Phenotype of Periodontal Cells by Targeting CB2 Receptors

Human gingival fibroblasts (GF) and human oral mucosa epithelial cells (EC) with an inflammatory phenotype represent a valuable experimental paradigm to explore the curative activity of agents to be used in oral mucositis. The role of cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2) has not yet been investigated in oral mucositis. The aim of this study was to evaluate the therapeutic potential of β-Caryophyllene (BCP), a CB2 agonist, in an in vitro model of oral mucositis. GF and EC were stimulated with LPS (2 µg/mL) alone or in combination with BCP; a group of LPS challenged GF and EC were treated with BCP and AM630, a CB2 antagonist. LPS increased the inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-17A whereas it decreased the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-13. The upstream signals were identified in an augmented expression of NF-κB and STAT-3 and in reduced mRNA levels of PPARγ and PGC-1α. BCP blunted the LPS-induced inflammatory phenotype and this effect was reverted by the CB2 antagonist AM630. These results suggest that CB2 receptors are an interesting target to develop innovative strategies for oral mucositis and point out that BCP exerts a marked curative effect in a preclinical model of oral mucositis which deserves to be confirmed in a clinical setting.