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Zhang R, Yao Y, Gao H, Hu X. Mechanisms of angiogenesis in tumour. Front Oncol 2024; 14:1359069. [PMID: 38590656 PMCID: PMC10999665 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2024.1359069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Angiogenesis is essential for tumour growth and metastasis. Antiangiogenic factor-targeting drugs have been approved as first line agents in a variety of oncology treatments. Clinical drugs frequently target the VEGF signalling pathway during sprouting angiogenesis. Accumulating evidence suggests that tumours can evade antiangiogenic therapy through other angiogenesis mechanisms in addition to the vascular sprouting mechanism involving endothelial cells. These mechanisms include (1) sprouting angiogenesis, (2) vasculogenic mimicry, (3) vessel intussusception, (4) vascular co-option, (5) cancer stem cell-derived angiogenesis, and (6) bone marrow-derived angiogenesis. Other non-sprouting angiogenic mechanisms are not entirely dependent on the VEGF signalling pathway. In clinical practice, the conversion of vascular mechanisms is closely related to the enhancement of tumour drug resistance, which often leads to clinical treatment failure. This article summarizes recent studies on six processes of tumour angiogenesis and provides suggestions for developing more effective techniques to improve the efficacy of antiangiogenic treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Xin Hu
- China–Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, Jilin University, Changchun, China
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2
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Giusti I, Poppa G, Di Fazio G, D'Ascenzo S, Dolo V. Metastatic Dissemination: Role of Tumor-Derived Extracellular Vesicles and Their Use as Clinical Biomarkers. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24119590. [PMID: 37298540 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24119590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer is a major cause of mortality in humans; often, rather than the primary tumor, it is the presence of metastases that are the cause of death. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small structures released by both normal and cancer cells; regarding the latter, they have been demonstrated to modulate almost all cancer-related processes, such as invasion, angiogenesis induction, drug resistance, and immune evasion. In the last years, it has become clear how EVs are widely involved in metastatic dissemination as well as in pre-metastatic niche (PMN) formation. Indeed, in order to achieve a successful metastatic process, i.e., penetration by cancer cells into distant tissues, the shaping of a favorable environment into those distant tissue, i.e., PMN formation, is mandatory. This process consists of an alteration that takes place in a distant organ and paves the way for the engraftment and growth of circulating tumor cells derived from the tumor primary site. This review focuses on the role of EVs in pre-metastatic niche formation and metastatic dissemination, also reporting the last studies suggesting the EVs role as biomarkers of metastatic diseases, possibly in a liquid biopsy approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Giusti
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, Via Vetoio-Coppito 2, 67100 L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Giuseppina Poppa
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, Via Vetoio-Coppito 2, 67100 L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Giulia Di Fazio
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, Via Vetoio-Coppito 2, 67100 L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Sandra D'Ascenzo
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, Via Vetoio-Coppito 2, 67100 L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Vincenza Dolo
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, Via Vetoio-Coppito 2, 67100 L'Aquila, Italy
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3
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Gong X, Chi H, Strohmer DF, Teichmann AT, Xia Z, Wang Q. Exosomes: A potential tool for immunotherapy of ovarian cancer. Front Immunol 2023; 13:1089410. [PMID: 36741380 PMCID: PMC9889675 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1089410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Ovarian cancer is a malignant tumor of the female reproductive system, with a very poor prognosis and high mortality rates. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy are the most common treatments for ovarian cancer, with unsatisfactory results. Exosomes are a subpopulation of extracellular vesicles, which have a diameter of approximately 30-100 nm and are secreted by many different types of cells in various body fluids. Exosomes are highly stable and are effective carriers of immunotherapeutic drugs. Recent studies have shown that exosomes are involved in various cellular responses in the tumor microenvironment, influencing the development and therapeutic efficacy of ovarian cancer, and exhibiting dual roles in inhibiting and promoting tumor development. Exosomes also contain a variety of genes related to ovarian cancer immunotherapy that could be potential biomarkers for ovarian cancer diagnosis and prognosis. Undoubtedly, exosomes have great therapeutic potential in the field of ovarian cancer immunotherapy. However, translation of this idea to the clinic has not occurred. Therefore, it is important to understand how exosomes could be used in ovarian cancer immunotherapy to regulate tumor progression. In this review, we summarize the biomarkers of exosomes in different body fluids related to immunotherapy in ovarian cancer and the potential mechanisms by which exosomes influence immunotherapeutic response. We also discuss the prospects for clinical application of exosome-based immunotherapy in ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hao Chi
- Clinical Medical College, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Dorothee Franziska Strohmer
- Department of General, Visceral, and Transplant Surgery, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Alexander Tobias Teichmann
- Sichuan Provincial Center for Gynecology and Breast Diseases (Gynecology), Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Zhijia Xia
- Department of General, Visceral, and Transplant Surgery, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany,*Correspondence: Zhijia Xia, ; Qin Wang,
| | - Qin Wang
- Sichuan Provincial Center for Gynecology and Breast Diseases (Gynecology), Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China,*Correspondence: Zhijia Xia, ; Qin Wang,
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Gabriel EM, Sukniam K, Popp K, Bagaria SP. Human intravital microscopy in the study of sarcomas: an early trial of feasibility. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1151255. [PMID: 37124504 PMCID: PMC10130404 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1151255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Sarcomas comprise a vast and heterogenous group of rare tumors. Because of their diversity, it is challenging to study sarcomas as a whole with regard to their biological and molecular characteristics. This diverse set of tumors may also possess differences related to their tumor-associated vasculature, which in turn may impact the ability to deliver systemic therapies (e.g., chemotherapy, targeted therapies, and immunotherapy). Consequently, response to systemic treatment may also be variable as these depend on the ability of the therapy to reach the tumor target via the tumor-associated vasculature. There is a paucity of data regarding sarcoma-related tumor vessels, likely in part to the rarity and heterogeneity of this cancer as well as the previously limited ability to image tumor-associated vessels in real time. Our group has previously utilized confocal fluorescent imaging technology to observe and characterize tumor-associated vessels in real time during surgical resection of tumors, including cutaneous melanoma and carcinomatosis implants derived from gastrointestinal, gynecological, or primary peritoneal (e.g., mesothelioma) tumors. Our prior studies have demonstrated the feasibility of real-time, human intravital microscopy in the study of these tumor types, leading to early but important new data regarding tumor vessel characteristics and their potential implications on drug delivery and efficacy. In this brief report, we present our latest descriptive findings in a cohort of patients with sarcoma who underwent surgical resection and real-time, intravital microscopy of their tumors. Overall, intravital imaging was feasible during the surgical resection of large sarcomas. Clinical trial registrations ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT03517852; ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT03823144.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel M. Gabriel
- Department of General Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
- *Correspondence: Emmanuel M. Gabriel,
| | - Kulkaew Sukniam
- Department of General Surgery, Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine, Suwanee, GA, United States
| | - Kyle Popp
- Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
| | - Sanjay P. Bagaria
- Department of General Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
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Li Y, Li M, Su K, Zong S, Zhang H, Xiong L. Pre-metastatic niche: from revealing the molecular and cellular mechanisms to the clinical applications in breast cancer metastasis. Theranostics 2023; 13:2301-2318. [PMID: 37153744 PMCID: PMC10157731 DOI: 10.7150/thno.82700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer (BC) is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers and the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in women worldwide. Metastasis is a major contributor to high cancer mortality and is usually the endpoint of a series of sequential and dynamic events. One of the critical events is forming a pre-metastatic niche (PMN) that occurs before macroscopic tumor cell invasion and provides a suitable environment for tumor cells to colonize and progress into metastases. Due to the unique characteristics of PMN in cancer metastasis, developing therapies to target PMN may bring new advantages in preventing cancer metastasis at an early stage. Various biological molecules, cells, and signaling pathways are altered in BC, regulating the functions of distinctive immune cells and stromal remodeling, inducing angiogenesis, and effect metabolic reprogramming and organotropism to promote PMN formation. In this review, we elucidate the multifaceted mechanisms contributing to the development of PMN in BC, discuss the characteristics of PMN, and highlight the significance of PMN in providing potential diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for BC metastasis, which may bring promising insights and foundations for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqiu Li
- Department of Pathophysiology, Medical College, Nanchang University, 461 Bayi Road, Nanchang 330006, China
- Queen Mary College of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, China
| | - Miao Li
- Department of Pathophysiology, Medical College, Nanchang University, 461 Bayi Road, Nanchang 330006, China
- Second Clinical Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, China
| | - Kangtai Su
- First Clinical Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, China
| | - Siwen Zong
- Second Clinical Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, China
| | - Hongyan Zhang
- Department of Burn, The First Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, 17 Yongwaizheng Road, Nanschang 330066, China
- ✉ Corresponding authors: Hongyan Zhang and Lixia Xiong; and
| | - Lixia Xiong
- Department of Pathophysiology, Medical College, Nanchang University, 461 Bayi Road, Nanchang 330006, China
- ✉ Corresponding authors: Hongyan Zhang and Lixia Xiong; and
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Zeng Y, Yu T, Zhang S, Song G, Meng T, Yuan H, Hu F. Combination of tumor vessel normalization and immune checkpoint blockade for breast cancer treatment via multifunctional nanocomplexes. Biomater Sci 2022; 10:4140-4155. [PMID: 35726757 DOI: 10.1039/d2bm00600f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Tumor vessel normalization can alleviate hypoxia, reduce the intratumoral infiltration of immunosuppressive cells and increase the intratumoral infiltration of immune effector cells (CD8+ T cells), further reversing the immunosuppressive microenvironment. Here, nanocomplexes (lipo/St@FA-COSA/BMS-202) which can accurately deliver drugs to tumor tissues and release different drugs at different sites with different rates were prepared to combine tumor vessel normalization with immune checkpoint blockade. The results of drug release in vitro showed that in a pH 6.5 release medium, lipo/St@FA-COSA/BMS-202 rapidly released the vascular normalizing drug (sunitinib, St) and slowly released the PD-1/PD-L1-blocking drug (BMS-202). The results of in vivo experiments showed that the rapidly released St normalized tumor vessels and formed an immunosupportive microenvironment which improved the anti-tumor efficacy of BMS-202. In conclusion, the drug delivery strategy significantly inhibited tumor growth and had excellent anti-tumor efficacy, which can provide a potential approach for effective tumor treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingping Zeng
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
| | - Tong Yu
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
| | - Shufen Zhang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
| | - Guangtao Song
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
| | - Tingting Meng
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
| | - Hong Yuan
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
| | - Fuqiang Hu
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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Masuda N, Ono M, Mukohara T, Yasojima H, Shimoi T, Kobayashi K, Harano K, Mizutani M, Tanioka M, Takahashi S, Kogawa T, Suzuki T, Okumura S, Takase T, Nagai R, Semba T, Zhao ZM, Ren M, Yonemori K. Phase 1 study of the liposomal formulation of eribulin (E7389-LF): Results from the breast cancer expansion cohort. Eur J Cancer 2022; 168:108-118. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2022.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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T cell therapy against cancer: a predictive diffuse-interface mathematical model informed by pre-clinical studies. J Theor Biol 2022; 547:111172. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2022.111172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Monitoring and personalization in treatment of breast cancer patients with metastatic bone lesions. EUREKA: HEALTH SCIENCES 2022. [DOI: 10.21303/2504-5679.2022.002270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim. To increase the efficiency of treatment of BC patients with metastatic lesions of long tubular bones by using, Multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) and bone marrow markers for diagnostics and monitoring the clinical course of the oncologic process, accompanied by surgical intervention with endoprosthetics along with the treatment of polymorbid pathology in a specific patient.
Materials and methods. Authors provide systemic personification including visualization of the tumor site and its vascularization; printing out the 3D model; surgical planning, including optimal surgical access to the tumor site considering the volume and topographic and anatomical location and dissemination of the tumor, the convenience of intraoperative tasks (removal of the tumor, bone grafting or endoprosthetics), preoperative planning of bone resection lines with maximum preservation of intact bone tissue.
Results. Personalization of the treatment of breast cancer patients with metastatic bone lesions contributes to a significant reduction in postoperative complications of endoprosthetic replacement of large joints (up to 15.2 %) and increases the overall three-year survival rate (up to 40.6 %), as well as significantly improves their quality of life.
Conclusions. The personalization of treatment of patients with tumor lesions of the skeletons contributes to a significant decrease in the indicator of postoperative complications of endoprosthetics of great joints and to an increase in the total three-year survival rate, as well as to the improvement of the quality of life after the conducted treatment.
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Kümper M, Hessenthaler S, Zamek J, Niland S, Pach E, Mauch C, Zigrino P. LOSS OF ENDOTHELIAL CELL MMP14 REDUCES MELANOMA GROWTH AND METASTASIS BY INCREASING TUMOR VESSEL STABILITY. J Invest Dermatol 2021; 142:1923-1933.e5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2021.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Pocaterra A, Catucci M, Mondino A. Adoptive T cell therapy of solid tumors: time to team up with immunogenic chemo/radiotherapy. Curr Opin Immunol 2021; 74:53-59. [PMID: 34743069 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2021.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Adoptive T cell therapy (ACT) with tumor-reactive lymphocytes can overcome the immune desert of poorly immunogenic tumors and instruct tumor eradication. Several hurdles limit the efficacy of this strategy against solid tumor including, but not limited to, sub optimal T cell engraftment, tumor infiltration, poor tumor antigenicity/immunogenicity, and immunosuppressive or resistance mechanisms. Recent advances indicate that concomitant treatments can be set in place to offset such barriers. In this review, we highlight the beneficial effects of combining ACT with conventional chemo and/or radiotherapy. While originally classified as immunosuppressive, these methodologies can also promote the engraftment of ACT products, immunogenic cell death, and the reprogramming of more favorable microenvironments. Data indicates that systemic and local chemo/radiotherapy regimens promote intratumoral cytokine and chemokine upregulation, tumor antigen presentation and cross presentation, infiltration and in situ T cells reactivation. Here we review the most recent contributions supporting these notions and discuss further developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arianna Pocaterra
- Lymphocyte Activation Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Via Olgettina, 58, 20132, Milan, Italy
| | - Marco Catucci
- Lymphocyte Activation Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Via Olgettina, 58, 20132, Milan, Italy
| | - Anna Mondino
- Lymphocyte Activation Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Via Olgettina, 58, 20132, Milan, Italy.
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Nakhjavani M, Smith E, Yeo K, Palethorpe HM, Tomita Y, Price TJ, Townsend AR, Hardingham JE. Anti-Angiogenic Properties of Ginsenoside Rg3 Epimers: In Vitro Assessment of Single and Combination Treatments. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13092223. [PMID: 34066403 PMCID: PMC8125638 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13092223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumour angiogenesis plays a key role in tumour growth and progression. The application of current anti-angiogenic drugs is accompanied by adverse effects and drug resistance. Therefore, finding safer effective treatments is needed. Ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) has two epimers, 20(S)-Rg3 (SRg3) and 20(R)-Rg3 (RRg3), with stereoselective activities. Using response surface methodology, we optimised a combination of these two epimers for the loop formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC). The optimised combination (C3) was tested on HUVEC and two murine endothelial cell lines. C3 significantly inhibited the loop formation, migration, and proliferation of these cells, inducing apoptosis in HUVEC and cell cycle arrest in all of the cell lines tested. Using molecular docking and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) bioassay, we showed that Rg3 has an allosteric modulatory effect on vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2). C3 also decreased the VEGF expression in hypoxic conditions, decreased the expression of aquaporin 1 and affected AKT signaling. The proteins that were mostly affected after C3 treatment were those related to mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E)-binding protein 1 (4E-BP1) was one of the important targets of C3, which was affected in both hypoxic and normoxic conditions. In conclusion, these results show the potential of C3 as a novel anti-angiogenic drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Nakhjavani
- Molecular Oncology, Basil Hetzel Institute, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville South, SA 5011, Australia; (M.N.); (K.Y.); (Y.T.); (J.E.H.)
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia; (T.J.P.); (A.R.T.)
| | - Eric Smith
- Molecular Oncology, Basil Hetzel Institute, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville South, SA 5011, Australia; (M.N.); (K.Y.); (Y.T.); (J.E.H.)
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia; (T.J.P.); (A.R.T.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-8-8222-6142
| | - Kenny Yeo
- Molecular Oncology, Basil Hetzel Institute, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville South, SA 5011, Australia; (M.N.); (K.Y.); (Y.T.); (J.E.H.)
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia; (T.J.P.); (A.R.T.)
| | - Helen M. Palethorpe
- Centre for Cancer Biology, University of South Australia and SA Pathology, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia;
| | - Yoko Tomita
- Molecular Oncology, Basil Hetzel Institute, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville South, SA 5011, Australia; (M.N.); (K.Y.); (Y.T.); (J.E.H.)
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia; (T.J.P.); (A.R.T.)
- Oncology Unit, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville South, SA 5011, Australia
| | - Tim J. Price
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia; (T.J.P.); (A.R.T.)
- Oncology Unit, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville South, SA 5011, Australia
| | - Amanda R. Townsend
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia; (T.J.P.); (A.R.T.)
- Oncology Unit, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville South, SA 5011, Australia
| | - Jennifer E. Hardingham
- Molecular Oncology, Basil Hetzel Institute, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville South, SA 5011, Australia; (M.N.); (K.Y.); (Y.T.); (J.E.H.)
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia; (T.J.P.); (A.R.T.)
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