Single-Chain Fragment Variable: Recent Progress in Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy

Monoclonal antibodies: From magic bullet to precision weapon

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are used to prevent, detect, and treat a broad spectrum of non-communicable and communicable diseases. Over the past few years, the market for mAbs has grown exponentially with an expected compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 11.07% from 2024 (237.64 billion USD estimated at the end of 2023) to 2033 (679.03 billion USD expected by the end of 2033). Ever since the advent of hybridoma technology introduced in 1975, antibody-based therapeutics were realized using murine antibodies which further progressed into humanized and fully human antibodies, reducing the risk of immunogenicity. Some benefits of using mAbs over conventional drugs include a drastic reduction in the chances of adverse reactions, interactions between drugs, and targeting specific proteins. While antibodies are very efficient, their higher production costs impede the process of commercialization. However, their cost factor has been improved by developing biosimilar antibodies as affordable versions of therapeutic antibodies. Along with the recent advancements and innovations in antibody engineering have helped and will furtherly help to design bio-better antibodies with improved efficacy than the conventional ones. These novel mAb-based therapeutics are set to revolutionize existing drug therapies targeting a wide spectrum of diseases, thereby meeting several unmet medical needs. This review provides comprehensive insights into the current fundamental landscape of mAbs development and applications and the key factors influencing the future projections, advancement, and incorporation of such promising immunotherapeutic candidates as a confrontation approach against a wide list of diseases, with a rationalistic mentioning of any limitations facing this field.

Therapeutic antibodies in oncology: an immunopharmacological overview

The biotechnological development of monoclonal antibodies and their immunotherapeutic use in oncology have grown exponentially in the last decade, becoming the first-line therapy for some types of cancer. Their mechanism of action is based on the ability to regulate the immune system or by interacting with targets that are either overexpressed in tumor cells, released into the extracellular milieu or involved in processes that favor tumor growth. In addition, the intrinsic characteristics of each subclass of antibodies provide specific effector functions against the tumor by activating antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity, complement-dependent cytotoxicity, and antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis, among other mechanisms. The rational design and engineering of monoclonal antibodies have improved their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic features, thus optimizing the therapeutic regimens administered to cancer patients and improving their clinical outcomes. The selection of the immunoglobulin G subclass, modifications to its crystallizable region (Fc), and conjugation of radioactive substances or antineoplastic drugs may all improve the antitumor effects of therapeutic antibodies. This review aims to provide insights into the immunological and pharmacological aspects of therapeutic antibodies used in oncology, with a rational approach at molecular modifications that can be introduced into these biological tools, improving their efficacy in the treatment of cancer.

Advancing glioblastoma treatment through iron metabolism: A focus on TfR1 and Ferroptosis innovations

Glioblastoma (GBM) represents a formidable challenge in oncology, characterized by aggressive proliferation and poor prognosis. Iron metabolism plays a critical player in GBM progression, with dysregulated iron uptake and utilization contributing to tumor growth and therapeutic resistance. Iron's pivotal role in DNA synthesis, oxidative stress, and angiogenesis underscores its significance in GBM pathogenesis. Elevated expression of iron transporters, such as transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1), highlights the tumor's reliance on iron for survival. Innovative treatment strategies targeting iron dysregulation hold promise for overcoming therapeutic challenges in GBM management. Approaches such as iron chelation therapies, induction of ferroptosis to nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems exploit iron-dependent vulnerabilities, offering avenues for enhance treatment efficacy and improve patient outcomes. As research advances, understanding the complexities of iron-mediated carcinogenesis provides a foundation for developing precision medicine approaches tailored to combat GBM effectively. This review explores the intricate relationship between iron metabolism and GBM, elucidating its multifaceted implications and therapeutic opportunities. By consolidating the latest insights into iron metabolism in GBM, this review underscores its potential as a therapeutic target for improving patient care in combination with the standard of care approach.

In vitro analysis of single chain variable fragment-based immunotoxins against Erythropoietin-producing hepatocellular A2 receptor overexpressed in breast cancer cells

Breast cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer deaths worldwide. Thereafter, designing new treatments with higher specificity and efficacy is urgently required. In this regard, targeted immunotherapy using immunotoxins has shown great promise in treating cancer. To target a breast cancer cell, the authors used the antibody fragment against a receptor tyrosine kinase, EphA2, which is overexpressed in many cancers. This fragment was conjugated to a plant toxin, subunit A of ricin, in two different orientations from N to C-terminal (EphA2- C-Ricin and EphA2- N-Ricin). Then, these two immunotoxins were characterized using in vitro cell-based assays. Three different cell lines were treated, MDA-MB-231 (breast cancer) which has a high level of EphA2 expression, MCF-7 (breast cancer) which has a low level of EphA2 expression, and HEK293 (human embryonic kidney) which has a very low level of EphA2 expression. Moreover, binding ability, cytotoxicity, internalization, and apoptosis capacity of these two newly developed immunotoxins were investigated. The flow cytometry using Annexin V- Propidium iodide (PI) method indicated significant induction of apoptosis only in the MDA-MB-231 cells at different concentrations. It was also found that construct I, EphA2- C-Ricin immunotoxin, could bind, internalize, and induce apoptosis better than the EphA2- N-Ricin immunotoxin. In addition, the obtained data suggested that the N or C-terminal orientation conformation is of significant importance.

Optimized inhaled LNP formulation for enhanced treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis via mRNA-mediated antibody therapy

Lipid nanoparticle-assisted mRNA inhalation therapy necessitates addressing challenges such as resistance to shear force damage, mucus penetration, cellular internalization, rapid lysosomal escape, and target protein expression. Here, we introduce the innovative "LOOP" platform with a four-step workflow to develop inhaled lipid nanoparticles specifically for pulmonary mRNA delivery. iLNP-HP08LOOP featuring a high helper lipid ratio, acidic dialysis buffer, and excipient-assisted nebulization buffer, demonstrates exceptional stability and enhanced mRNA expression in the lungs. By incorporating mRNA encoding IL-11 single chain fragment variable (scFv), scFv@iLNP-HP08LOOP effectively delivers and secretes IL-11 scFv to the lungs of male mice, significantly inhibiting fibrosis. This formulation surpasses both inhaled and intravenously injected IL-11 scFv in inhibiting fibroblast activation and extracellular matrix deposition. The HP08LOOP system is also compatible with commercially available ALC0315 LNPs. Thus, the "LOOP" method presents a powerful platform for developing inhaled mRNA nanotherapeutics with potential for treating various respiratory diseases, including idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.

An Investigation into the In Vitro Targeted Killing of CD44-Expressing Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells Using Recombinant Photoimmunotherapeutics Compared to Auristatin-F-Based Antibody-Drug Conjugates

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the deadliest form of breast cancer with limited treatment options. The persistence of highly tumorigenic CD44-expressing subpopulation referred to as cancer stem cells (CSCs), endowed with the self-renewal capacity, has been associated with therapeutic resistance, hence clinical relapses. To mitigate these undesired events, targeted immunotherapies using antibody-photoconjugate (APC) or antibody-drug conjugate (ADC), were developed to specifically release cytotoxic payloads within targeted cells overexpressing cognate antigen receptors. Therefore, an αCD44(scFv)-SNAP-tag antibody fusion protein was engineered through genetic fusion of a single-chain antibody fragment (scFv) to a SNAPf-tag fusion protein, capable of self-conjugating with benzylguanine-modified light-sensitive near-infrared (NIR) phthalocyanine dye IRDye700DX (BG-IR700) or the small molecule toxin auristatin-F (BG-AURIF). Binding of the αCD44(scFv)-SNAPf-IR700 photoimmunoconjugate to antigen-positive cells was demonstrated by confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. By switching to NIR irradiation, CD44-expressing TNBC was selectively killed through induced phototoxic activities. Likewise, the αCD44(scFv)-SNAPf-AURIF immunoconjugate was able to selectively accumulate within targeted cells and significantly reduced cell viability through antimitotic activities at nano- to micromolar drug concentrations. This study provides an in vitro proof-of-concept for a future strategy to selectively destroy light-accessible superficial CD44-expressing TNBC tumors and their metastatic lesions which are inaccessible to therapeutic light.

Mapping conformational changes on bispecific antigen-binding biotherapeutic by covalent labeling and mass spectrometry

Biotherapeutic's higher order structure (HOS) is a critical determinant of its functional properties and conformational relevance. Here, we evaluated two covalent labeling methods: diethylpyrocarbonate (DEPC)-labeling and fast photooxidation of proteins (FPOP), in conjunction with mass spectrometry (MS), to investigate structural modifications for the new class of immuno-oncological therapy known as bispecific antigen-binding biotherapeutics (BABB). The evaluated techniques unveiled subtle structural changes occurring at the amino acid residue level within the antigen-binding domain under both native and thermal stress conditions, which cannot be detected by conventional biophysical techniques, e.g., near-ultraviolet circular dichroism (NUV-CD). The determined variations in labeling uptake under native and stress conditions, corroborated by binding assays, shed light on the binding effect, and highlighted the potential of covalent-labeling methods to effectively monitor conformational changes that ultimately influence the product quality. Our study provides a foundation for implementing the developed techniques in elucidating the inherent structural characteristics of novel therapeutics and their conformational stability.

Extracellular Vesicles as Drug Delivery System for Cancer Therapy

In recent decades, the pursuit of drug delivery systems has led to the development of numerous synthetic options aimed at enhancing drug efficacy while minimizing side effects. However, the practical application of these systems is often hindered by challenges such as inefficiency, cytotoxicity, and immunogenicity. Extracellular vesicles, natural carriers for drugs, emerge as promising alternatives with distinct advantages over synthetic carriers. Notably, EVs exhibit biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, and inherent tissue-targeting capabilities, thus opening new avenues for drug delivery strategies. This review provides an overview of EVs, including their biogenesis and absorption mechanisms. Additionally, we explore the current research efforts focusing on harnessing their potential as drug carriers, encompassing aspects such as purification techniques, drug loading, and bioengineering for targeted delivery. Finally, we discuss the existing challenges and future prospects of EVs as therapeutic agents in clinical settings. This comprehensive analysis aims to shed light on the potential of EVs as versatile and effective tools for drug delivery, particularly in the realm of cancer therapy.

Comprehensive approaches to preclinical evaluation of monoclonal antibodies and their next-generation derivatives

Biotherapeutics hold great promise for the treatment of several diseases and offer innovative possibilities for new treatments that target previously unaddressed medical needs. Despite successful transitions from preclinical to clinical stages and regulatory approval, there are instances where adverse reactions arise, resulting in product withdrawals. As a result, it is essential to conduct thorough evaluations of safety and effectiveness on an individual basis. This article explores current practices, challenges, and future approaches in conducting comprehensive preclinical assessments to ensure the safety and efficacy of biotherapeutics including monoclonal antibodies, toxin-conjugates, bispecific antibodies, single-chain antibodies, Fc-engineered antibodies, antibody mimetics, and siRNA-antibody/peptide conjugates.

Anti-angiogenic biomolecules in neovascular age-related macular degeneration; therapeutics and drug delivery systems

Blindness in the elderly is often caused by age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The advanced type of AMD known as neovascular AMD (nAMD) has been linked to being the predominant cause of visual impairment in these people. Multiple neovascular structures including choroidal neovascular (CNV) membranes, fluid exudation, hemorrhages, and subretinal fibrosis, are diagnostic of nAMD. These pathological alterations ultimately lead to anatomical and visual loss. It is known that vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a type of proangiogenic factor, mediates the pathological process underlying nAMD. Therefore, various therapies have evolved to directly target the disease. In this review article, an attempt has been made to discuss general explanations about this disease, all common treatment methods based on anti-VEGF drugs, and the use of drug delivery systems in the treatment of AMD. Initially, the pathophysiology, angiogenesis, and different types of AMD were described. Then we described current treatments and future treatment prospects for AMD and outlined the advantages and disadvantages of each. In this context, we first examined the types of therapeutic biomolecules and anti-VEGF drugs that are used in the treatment of AMD. These biomolecules include aptamers, monoclonal antibodies, small interfering RNAs, microRNAs, peptides, fusion proteins, nanobodies, and other therapeutic biomolecules. Finally, we described drug delivery systems based on liposomes, nanomicelles, nanoemulsions, nanoparticles, cyclodextrin, dendrimers, and composite vehicles that are used in AMD therapy.

Nicotiana benthamiana-derived dupilumab-scFv reaches deep into the cultured human nasal epithelial cells and inhibits CCL26 expression

Plants offer a cost-effective and scalable pharmaceutical platform devoid of host-derived contamination risks. However, their medical application is complicated by the potential for acute allergic reactions to external proteins. Developing plant-based protein therapeutics for localized diseases with non-invasive treatment modalities may capitalize on the benefits of plant proteins while avoiding their inherent risks. Dupilumab, which is effective against a variety of allergic and autoimmune diseases but has systemic responses and injection-related side effects, may be more beneficial if delivered locally using a small biological form. In this study, we engineered a single-chain variable fragment (scFv) of dupilumab, termed Dup-scFv produced by Nicotiana benthamiana, and evaluated its tissue permeability and anti-inflammatory efficacy in air-liquid interface cultured human nasal epithelial cells (HNECs). Despite showing 3.67- and 17-fold lower binding affinity for IL-4Ra in surface plasmon resonance assays and cell binding assays, respectively, Dup-scFv retained most of the affinity of dupilumab, which was originally high, with a dissociation constant (KD) of 4.76 pM. In HNECs cultured at the air-liquid interface, Dup-scFv administered on the air side inhibited the inflammatory marker CCL26 in hard-to-reach basal cells more effectively than dupilumab. In addition, Dup-scFv had an overall permeability of 0.8% across cell layers compared to undetectable levels of dupilumab. These findings suggest that plant-produced Dup-scFv can be delivered non-invasively to cultured HNESc to alleviate inflammatory signaling, providing a practical approach to utilize plant-based proteins for topical therapeutic applications.

Engineered Antibodies to Improve Efficacy against Neurodegenerative Disorders

Antibodies that can selectively remove rogue proteins in the brain are an obvious choice to treat neurodegenerative disorders (NDs), but after decades of efforts, only two antibodies to treat Alzheimer's disease are approved, dozens are in the testing phase, and one was withdrawn, and the other halted, likely due to efficacy issues. However, these outcomes should have been evident since these antibodies cannot enter the brain sufficiently due to the blood-brain barrier (BBB) protectant. However, all products can be rejuvenated by binding them with transferrin, preferably as smaller fragments. This model can be tested quickly and at a low cost and should be applied to bapineuzumab, solanezumab, crenezumab, gantenerumab, aducanumab, lecanemab, donanemab, cinpanemab, and gantenerumab, and their fragments. This paper demonstrates that conjugating with transferrin does not alter the binding to brain proteins such as amyloid-β (Aβ) and α-synuclein. We also present a selection of conjugate designs that will allow cleavage upon entering the brain to prevent their exocytosis while keeping the fragments connected to enable optimal binding to proteins. The identified products can be readily tested and returned to patients with the lowest regulatory cost and delays. These engineered antibodies can be manufactured by recombinant engineering, preferably by mRNA technology, as a more affordable solution to meet the dire need to treat neurodegenerative disorders effectively.

Controlling CAR-T cell activity and specificity with synthetic SparX adapters

While conventional chimeric antigen-receptor (CAR)-T therapies have shown remarkable clinical activity in some settings, they can induce severe toxicities and are rarely curative. To address these challenges, we developed a controllable cell therapy where synthetic D-domain-containing proteins (soluble protein antigen-receptor X-linker [SparX]) bind one or more tumor antigens and mark those cells for elimination by genetically modified T cells (antigen-receptor complex [ARC]-T). The chimeric antigen receptor was engineered with a D-domain that specifically binds to the SparX protein via a unique TAG, derived from human alpha-fetoprotein. The interaction is mediated through an epitope on the TAG that is occluded in the native alpha-fetoprotein molecule. In vitro and in vivo data demonstrate that the activation and cytolytic activity of ARC-T cells is dependent on the dose of SparX protein and only occurs when ARC-T cells are engaged with SparX proteins bound to antigen-positive cells. ARC-T cell specificity was also redirected in vivo by changing SparX proteins that recognized different tumor antigens to combat inherent or acquired tumor heterogeneity. The ARC-SparX platform is designed to expand patient and physician access to cell therapy by controlling potential toxicities through SparX dosing regimens and enhancing tumor elimination through sequential or simultaneous administration of SparX proteins engineered to bind different tumor antigens.

Enhanced therapeutic potential of antibody fragment via IEDDA-mediated site-specific albumin conjugation

BACKGROUND

The use of single-chain variable fragments (scFvs) for treating human diseases, such as cancer and immune system disorders, has attracted significant attention. However, a critical drawback of scFv is its extremely short serum half-life, which limits its therapeutic potential. Thus, there is a critical need to prolong the serum half-life of the scFv for clinical applications. One promising serum half-life extender for therapeutic proteins is human serum albumin (HSA), which is the most abundant protein in human serum, known to have an exceptionally long serum half-life. However, conjugating a macromolecular half-life extender to a small protein, such as scFv, often results in a significant loss of its critical properties.

RESULTS

In this study, we conjugated the HSA to a permissive site of scFv to improve pharmacokinetic profiles. To ensure minimal damage to the antigen-binding capacity of scFv upon HSA conjugation, we employed a site-specific conjugation approach using a heterobifunctional crosslinker that facilitates thiol-maleimide reaction and inverse electron-demand Diels-Alder reaction (IEDDA). As a model protein, we selected 4D5scFv, derived from trastuzumab, a therapeutic antibody used in human epithermal growth factor 2 (HER2)-positive breast cancer treatment. We introduced a phenylalanine analog containing a very reactive tetrazine group (frTet) at conjugation site candidates predicted by computational methods. Using the linker TCO-PEG4-MAL, a single HSA molecule was site-specifically conjugated to the 4D5scFv (4D5scFv-HSA). The 4D5scFv-HSA conjugate exhibited HER2 binding affinity comparable to that of unmodified 4D5scFv. Furthermore, in pharmacokinetic profile in mice, the serum half-life of 4D5scFv-HSA was approximately 12 h, which is 85 times longer than that of 4D5scFv.

CONCLUSIONS

The antigen binding results and pharmacokinetic profile of 4D5scFv-HSA demonstrate that the site-specifically albumin-conjugated scFv retained its binding affinity with a prolonged serum half-life. In conclusion, we developed an effective strategy to prepare site-specifically albumin-conjugated 4D5scFv, which can have versatile clinical applications with improved efficacy.

Reforming solid tumor treatment: the emerging potential of smaller format antibody-drug conjugate

In recent years, substantial therapeutic efficacy of antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) has been validated through approvals of 16 ADCs for the treatment of malignant tumors. However, realization of the maximum clinical use of ADCs requires surmounting extant challenges, mainly the limitations in tumor penetration capabilities when targeting solid tumors. To resolve the hurdle of suboptimal tumor penetration, miniaturized antibody fragments with engineered formats have been harnessed for ADC assembly. By virtue of their reduced molecular sizes, antibody fragment-drug conjugates hold considerable promise for efficacious delivery of cytotoxic agents, thus conferring superior therapeutic outcomes. This review will focus on current advancements in novel ADC development utilizing smaller antibody formats from ~6 to 80 kDa, with particular emphasis on single-domain antibodies, which have been widely applied in novel ADC design. Additionally, strategies to optimize clinical translation are discussed, including half-life extension, acceleration of internalization, and reduction of immunogenic potential.

Production of a Ribosome-Displayed Mouse scFv Antibody Against CD133, Analysis of Its Molecular Docking, and Molecular Dynamic Simulations of Their Interactions

The pentaspan transmembrane glycoprotein CD133, prominin-1, is expressed in cancer stem cells in many tumors and is promising as a novel target for the delivery of cytotoxic drugs to cancer-initiating cells. In this study, we prepared a mouse library of single-chain variable fragment (scFv) antibodies using mRNAs isolated from mice immunized with the third extracellular domain of a recombinant CD133 (D-EC3). First, the scFvs were directly exposed to D-EC3 to select a new specific scFv with high affinity against CD133 using the ribosome display method. Then, the selected scFv was characterized by the indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunocytochemistry (ICC), and in silico analyses included molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations. Based on ELISA results, scFv 2 had a higher affinity for recombinant CD133, and it was considered for further analysis. Next, the immunocytochemistry and flow cytometry experiments confirmed that the obtained scFv could bind to the CD133 expressing HT-29 cells. Furthermore, the results of in silico analysis verified the ability of the scFv 2 antibody to bind and detect the D-EC3 antigen through key residues employed in antigen-antibody interactions. Our results suggest that ribosome display could be applied as a rapid and valid method for isolation of scFv with high affinity and specificity. Also, studying the mechanism of interaction between CD133's scFv and D-EC3 with two approaches of experimental and in silico analysis has potential importance for the design and development of antibody with improved properties.

Antibody and antibody fragments site-specific conjugation using new Q-tag substrate of bacterial transglutaminase

During the last few years Antibody-Drug Conjugates (ADCs) have become one of the most active and very promising therapeutic weapons. Lessons learned from the traditional chemical conjugations (via lysine or cysteine residues of the antibodies) and the clinical studies of the developed ADCs have recently paved the way to the improvement of the conjugation technologies. Use of site-specific conjugation is considered as the promising path for improving the design and development of homogeneous ADCs with controlled Drug-Antibody ratio (DAR). Moreover, some of these conjugations can be applied to antibody fragments such as Fab, scfv and VHH for which random and chemical conjugation showed significant limitations. In this study, we identified a novel small peptide substrate (Q-tag) with high affinity and specificity of bacterial transglutaminase which can be genetically fused to different formats of antibodies of interest for the development of enzymatic site-specific conjugation we named "CovIsolink" platform. We describe the synthesis of chemically defined drugs conjugation in which the site and stoichiometry of conjugation are controlled using a genetically encoded Q-tag peptide with specific amino acids which serves as a substrate of bacterial transglutaminase. This approach has enabled the generation of homogeneous conjugates with DAR 1,7 for full IgG and 0,8 drug ratio for Fab, scfv and VHH antibody fragments without the presence of significant amounts of unconjugated antibody and fragments. As a proof of concept, Q-tagged anti Her-2 (human IgG1 (Trastuzumab) and the corresponding fragments (Fab, scfv and VHH) were engineered and conjugated with different aminated-payloads. The corresponding Cov-ADCs were evaluated in series of in vitro and in vivo assays, demonstrating similar tumor cell killing potency as Trastuzumab emtansine (Kadcyla®) even with lower drug-to-antibody ratio (DAR).

Monoclonal Antibodies as a Therapeutic Strategy against Multidrug-Resistant Bacterial Infections in a Post-COVID-19 Era

The development of severe multidrug-resistant bacterial infections has recently intensified because of the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the guidelines issued by the World Health Organization (WHO), routine antibiotic administration is not recommended for patients with supposed or confirmed mild SARS-CoV-2 infection or pneumonia, unless bacterial infection is clinically suspected. However, recent studies have pointed out that the proportion of non-essential antibiotic use in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 remains high. Therefore, the silent pandemic of antibiotic resistance remains a pressing issue regardless of the present threats presented by the COVID-19 pandemic. To prevent or delay entry into the postulated post-antibiotic era, the long-term advocacy for the rational use of antibiotics, the optimization of infection control procedures, and the development of new antibacterial agents and vaccines should be underscored as vital practices of the antibacterial toolbox. Recently, the development of vaccines and monoclonal antibodies has gradually received attention following the advancement of biotechnology as well as enhanced drug discovery and development in cancer research. Although decent progress has been made in laboratory-based research and promising results have been obtained following clinical trials of some of these products, challenges still exist in their widespread clinical applications. This article describes the current advantages of antibacterial monoclonal antibodies, the development of associated clinical trials, and some perceived future perspectives and challenges. Further, we anticipate the development of more therapeutic agents to combat drug-resistant bacterial infections as well as to increase the resilience of current or novel agents/strategies.

Reduced Tumor Volume and Increased Necrosis of Human Breast Tumor Xenograft in Mice Pretreated by a Cocktail of Three Specific Anti-HER2 scFvs

PURPOSE

We aimed to assess the effects of a cocktail comprising three specific anti- HER2 scFvs on breast tumor formation in a xenograft mouse model and to evaluate quantitative changes in the tumor using stereological analysis.

METHODS

Three specific anti-HER2 phage antibodies were produced from a scFv-library using phage display technology. The cell binding capacities of the antibodies were assessed via FACS analysis. Soluble forms of the antibodies were prepared by infecting HB2151-E. coli cells and purified using a centrifugal ultrafiltration method. The purification process was evaluated by SDSPAGE analysis. Two forms of scFv cocktails were prepared, soluble scFv and phage-scFv cocktail, which contained an equal amount/phage of each of the three antibodies. Inbred female BALB/c mice were pretreated with 5 and 20 mg/kg of the soluble scFv cocktail and 1011 phage-scFv cocktail/ kg. The mice were then injected with 2×106 SKBR-3 human breast cancer cells. Total tumor, inflammatory and non-inflammatory volumes were estimated using the Cavalieri principle after preparing photomicrograph slides.

RESULTS

The anti-HER2 scFvs showed significantly higher binding to SKBR-3 cells compared to the isotype control. SDS-PAGE analysis confirmed the high purification of the scFvs. Stereological analysis revealed that the group pretreated with 20 mg/kg of the soluble scFv cocktail exhibited the highest reductions in total tumor volume, non-inflammatory volume, and inflammatory volume, with reductions of 73%, 78%, and 72%, respectively, compared to PBS-pretreated mice (P-value < 0.0001). The volumetric ratio of necrotic tissue to total tumor volume increased by 2.2-fold and 2- fold in the 20 mg/kg of soluble scFv cocktail and phage-scFv cocktail groups, respectively, compared to the PBS-treated mice (P-value < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Pre-treatment with a 20 mg/kg anti-HER2 scFv cocktail resulted in a significant reduction in tumor volume and increased necrotic area in a human breast cancer xenograft model, indicating the remarkable anti-tumor effect of the cocktail in vivo.

EGFR-targeted humanized single chain antibody fragment functionalized silica nanoparticles for precision therapy of cancer

The combination of highly specific targeting ability and potent killing effect has made antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) a popular area of focus in the development of anti-cancer drugs. However, the large molecular weight of IgG antibodies (∼ 150 kDa) often faces challenges in penetrating capillaries and stroma in tumor tissue. Moreover, when the drug-antibody ratio (DAR) is too low (DAR < 2) or too high (DAR > 6) it decreases the effectiveness of the ADC and further increases the potential for aggregation, overall clearance of the early system payload, and release rate. In this study, an EGFR-based single-chain antibody fragment (husA)-human serum albumin (HSA)-coupled FITC-labeled mesoporous silica nanoparticle (FMSN-DOX-H-husA) was developed. Chinese hamster ovarian cells express the husA, which is a single chain antibody fragment of the EGFR that has been humanized. The small molecular weight of the single chain antibody allows for shorter penetration into solid tumors and the absence of adverse effects of the Fc fragment. The modification of HSA improves the safety of the antibody nanoparticle couples by both improving the biocompatibility of the nanoparticles, prolonging the circulation time of the nanoparticles, and avoiding early release of the payload. Also, the humanization substantially reduces the immunogenicity. More importantly, the ratio of drug antibodies on nanoparticles was experimentally and computationally derived to be 11.8, providing a more accurate guide for clinical trials. The results of both in vivo and in vitro experiments indicated promising antitumor activity and safety of FMSN-DOX-H-husA. Thus, this antibody-drug conjugate provided a hopeful option for cancer treatment.

Targeted Immunotherapies for Cancers

Advancements in immunotherapy have revolutionized cancer treatment in a broad variety of hematological and solid malignancies and rejuvenated the field of cancer immunology [...].

Recent Advances in the Development of Monoclonal Antibodies and Next-Generation Antibodies

mAbs are highly indispensable tools for diagnostic, prophylactic, and therapeutic applications. The first technique, hybridoma technology, was based on fusion of B lymphocytes with myeloma cells, which resulted in generation of single mAbs against a specific Ag. Along with hybridoma technology, several novel and alternative methods have been developed to improve mAb generation, ranging from electrofusion to the discovery of completely novel technologies such as B cell immortalization; phage, yeast, bacterial, ribosome, and mammalian display systems; DNA/RNA encoded Abs; single B cell technology; transgenic animals; and artificial intelligence/machine learning. This commentary outlines the evolution, methodology, advantages, and limitations of various mAb production techniques. Furthermore, with the advent of next-generation Ab technologies such as single-chain variable fragments, nanobodies, bispecific Abs, Fc-engineered Abs, Ab biosimilars, Ab mimetics, and Ab-drug conjugates, the healthcare and pharmaceutical sectors have become resourceful to develop highly specific mAb treatments against various diseases such as cancer and autoimmune and infectious diseases.

CSPG4 as a target for the specific killing of triple-negative breast cancer cells by a recombinant SNAP-tag-based antibody-auristatin F drug conjugate

PURPOSE

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is phenotypic of breast tumors lacking expression of the estrogen receptor (ER), the progesterone receptor (PgR), and the human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2). The paucity of well-defined molecular targets in TNBC, coupled with the increasing burden of breast cancer-related mortality, emphasizes the need to develop targeted diagnostics and therapeutics. While antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) have emerged as revolutionary tools in the selective delivery of drugs to malignant cells, their widespread clinical use has been hampered by traditional strategies which often give rise to heterogeneous mixtures of ADC products.

METHODS

Utilizing SNAP-tag technology as a cutting-edge site-specific conjugation method, a chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 4 (CSPG4)-targeting ADC was engineered, encompassing a single-chain antibody fragment (scFv) conjugated to auristatin F (AURIF) via a click chemistry strategy.

RESULTS

After showcasing the self-labeling potential of the SNAP-tag component, surface binding and internalization of the fluorescently labeled product were demonstrated on CSPG4-positive TNBC cell lines through confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. The cell-killing ability of the novel AURIF-based recombinant ADC was illustrated by the induction of a 50% reduction in cell viability at nanomolar to micromolar concentrations on target cell lines.

CONCLUSION

This research underscores the applicability of SNAP-tag in the unambiguous generation of homogeneous and pharmaceutically relevant immunoconjugates that could potentially be instrumental in the management of a daunting disease like TNBC.

Single-chain dimers from de novo immunoglobulins as robust scaffolds for multiple binding loops

Antibody derivatives have sought to recapitulate the antigen binding properties of antibodies, but with improved biophysical attributes convenient for therapeutic, diagnostic and research applications. However, their success has been limited by the naturally occurring structure of the immunoglobulin dimer displaying hypervariable binding loops, which is hard to modify by traditional engineering approaches. Here, we devise geometrical principles for de novo designing single-chain immunoglobulin dimers, as a tunable two-domain architecture that optimizes biophysical properties through more favorable dimer interfaces. Guided by these principles, we computationally designed protein scaffolds that were hyperstable, structurally accurate and robust for accommodating multiple functional loops, both individually and in combination, as confirmed through biochemical assays and X-ray crystallography. We showcase the modularity of this architecture by deep-learning-based diversification, opening up the possibility for tailoring the number, positioning, and relative orientation of ligand-binding loops targeting one or two distal epitopes. Our results provide a route to custom-design robust protein scaffolds for harboring multiple functional loops.

Production of novel recombinant anti-EpCAM antibody as targeted therapy for breast cancer

BACKGROUND

The utilization of monoclonal antibodies (moAbs), an issue correlated with the biopharmaceutical professions, is developing and maturing. Coordinated with this conception, we produced the appealingly modeled anti-EpCAM scFv for breast cancer tumors.

METHODS

Afterward cloning and expression of recombinant antibody in Escherichia coli bacteria, the correctness of the desired antibody was checked by western blotting. Flow cytometry was utilized to determine the capacity of the recombinant antibody to append to the desired receptors in the malignant breast cancer (BC)cell line. The recombinant antibody (anti-EpCAM scFv) was examined for preclinical efficacy in reducing tumor growth, angiogenesis, and invasiveness (in vitro- in vivo).

FINDINGS

A target antibody-mediated attenuation of migration and invasion in the examined cancer cell lines was substantiated (P-value < 0.05). Grafted tumors from breast cancer in mice indicated significant and compelling suppression of tumor growth and decrement in blood supply in reaction to the recombinant anti-EpCAM intervention. Evaluations of immunohistochemical and histopathological findings revealed an enhanced response rate to the treatment.

CONCLUSION

The desired anti-EpCAM scFv can be a therapeutic tool to reduce invasion and proliferation in malignant breast cancer.

Plant-derived single domain COVID-19 antibodies

Data show a decrease in the risk of hospitalization and death from COVID-19. To date, global vaccinations for SARS-CoV-2 protections are underway, but additional treatments are urgently needed to prevent and cure infection among naïve and even vaccinated people. Neutralizing monoclonal antibodies are very promising for prophylaxis and therapy of SARS-CoV-2 infections. However, traditional large-scale methods of producing such antibodies are slow, extremely expensive and possess a high risk of contamination with viruses, prions, oncogenic DNA and other pollutants. The present study is aimed at developing an approach of producing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein in plant systems which offers unique advantages, such as the lack of human and animal pathogens or bacterial toxins, relatively low-cost manufacturing, and ease of production scale-up. We selected a single N-terminal domain functional camelid-derived heavy (H)-chain antibody fragments (VHH, AKA nanobodies) targeted to receptor binding domain of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and developed methods of their rapid production using transgenic plants and plant cell suspensions. Isolated and purified plant-derived VHH antibodies were compared with mAbs produced in traditional mammalian and bacterial expression systems. It was found that plant generated VHH using the proposed methods of transformation and purification possess the ability to bind to SARS-CoV-2 spike protein comparable to that of monoclonal antibodies derived from bacterial and mammalian cell cultures. The results of the present studies confirm the visibility of producing monoclonal single-chain antibodies with a high ability to bind the targeted COVID-19 spike protein in plant systems within a relatively shorter time span and at a lower cost when compared with traditional methods. Moreover, similar plant biotechnology approaches can be used for producing monoclonal neutralizing antibodies against other types of viruses.

A Single Chain Fragment Variant Binding Misfolded Alpha-Synuclein Exhibits Neuroprotective and Antigen-Specific Anti-Inflammatory Properties

INTRODUCTION

Alpha synuclein (αSyn) misfolding plays a requisite role in the pathogenesis of synucleinopathies. Direct toxicity to neurons, triggering neuroinflammation as well as the spreading and seeding of αSyn pathology are essential pathogenetic underlying mechanisms. Immunotherapy in experimental Parkinson's disease (PD) has been shown to be consistently effective in preclinical models, yet the initial clinical trials with monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) yielded marginal results if any. Aiming to overcome some of the limitation of this approach, we aimed to select an αSyn binding scFv antibody format and test it in multiple experimental PD in vivo models.

METHODS

We cloned the lead αSyn scFv based on preselection of human phage display libraries of human Fab. The selected of scFv targeting both oligomers and pre-formed fibrils (PFF) of αSyn were tested for their ability to protect neurons from triggered toxicity, influence their uptake to microglia, and accelerate misfolded αSyn degradation. The lead scFv- sMB08, was also tested for its ability to impact αSyn aggregation as well as spreading and seeding.

RESULTS

sMB08 was shown to protect neurons from misfolded αSyn mediated toxicity, promote its intracellular degradation, and to reduce its uptake by microglia. sMB08 exhibited anti-inflammatory properties, including its ability to attenuate adaptive αSyn autoimmunity and ameliorate proinflammatory cytokine expression in brains of mice stereotactically injected with PFF. Employing three experimental models of PD, intranasal treatment with sMB08 attenuated motoric dysfunction and achieved acceptable brain levels by pharmacokinetic analysis, leading to significant preservation of dopaminergic n neurons.

CONCLUSION

sMB08, a scFv targeting both αSyn oligomers and PFF, due to its small size facilitating paraneural brain penetration and avoidance of nonspecific inflammation, appears as an attractive approach to test in patients with PD by addressing the major mechanisms that mediate misfolded αSyn driven pathology.