Mammary Development and Breast Cancer: A Wnt Perspective

C/EBPβ deletion in macrophages impairs mammary gland alveolar budding during the estrous cycle

Macrophages have important roles in mammary gland development and tissue homeostasis, but the specific mechanisms that regulate macrophage function need further elucidation. We have identified C/EBPβ as an important transcription factor expressed by multiple macrophage populations in the normal mammary gland. Mammary glands from mice with C/EBPβ-deficient macrophages (Cebpb ΔM) show a significant decrease in alveolar budding during the diestrus stage of the reproductive cycle, whereas branching morphogenesis remains unchanged. Defects in alveolar budding were found to be the result of both systemic hormones and local macrophage-directed signals. RNA sequencing shows significant changes in PR-responsive genes and alterations in the Wnt landscape of mammary epithelial cells of Cebpb ΔM mice, which regulate stem cell expansion during diestrus. Cebpb ΔM macrophages demonstrate a shift from a pro-inflammatory to a tissue-reparative phenotype, and exhibit increased phagocytic capacity as compared to WT. Finally, Cebpb ΔM macrophages down-regulate Notch2 and Notch3, which normally promote stem cell expansion during alveolar budding. These results suggest that C/EBPβ is an important macrophage factor that facilitates macrophage-epithelial crosstalk during a key stage of mammary gland tissue homeostasis.

Metformin reduces basal subpopulation and attenuates mammary epithelial cell stemness in FVB/N mice

Metformin shows promise in breast cancer prevention, but its underlying mechanisms remain unclear. This study investigated the impact of metformin on the repopulation dynamics of mammary epithelial cells (MECs) and the signaling pathways in non-tumorigenic FVB/N mice. This study aimed to enhance our understanding of the role of metformin in reducing the susceptibility of MECs in premalignant tissues to oncogenic factors. In this study, female mice were administered 200 mg/kg/day of metformin via intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection from 8 to 18 weeks of age. After this treatment period, morphogenesis, flow cytometry, analyses of MEC stemness, and RNA sequencing were performed. The study findings indicated that metformin treatment in adult mice reduced mammary gland proliferation, as demonstrated by decreased Ki67+ cells and lateral bud formation. Additionally, metformin significantly reduced both basal and mammary repopulating unit subpopulations, indicating an impact on mammary epithelial cell repopulation. Mammosphere, colony-forming cell, and 3D culture assays revealed that metformin adversely affected mammary epithelial cell stemness. Furthermore, metformin downregulated signaling in key pathways including AMPK/mTOR, MAPK/Erk, PI3K/Akt, and ER, which contribute to its inhibitory effects on mammary proliferation and stemness. Transcriptome analysis with RNA sequencing indicated that metformin induced significant downregulation of genes involved in multiple critical pathways. KEGG-based pathway analysis indicated that genes in PI3K/Akt, focal adhesion, ECM-receptor, small cell lung cancer and immune-modulation pathways were among the top groups of differentially regulated genes. In summary, our research demonstrates that metformin inhibits MEC proliferation and stemness, accompanied by the downregulation of intrinsic signaling. These insights suggest that the regulatory effects of metformin on premalignant mammary tissues could potentially delay or prevent the onset of breast cancer, offering a promising avenue for developing new preventive strategies.

Archetypal clustering reveals physiological mechanisms linking milk yield and fertility in dairy cattle

Fertility in dairy cattle has declined as an unintended consequence of single-trait selection for high milk yield. The unfavorable genetic correlation between milk yield and fertility is now well documented; however, the underlying physiological mechanisms are still uncertain. To understand the relationship between these traits, we developed a method that clusters variants with similar patterns of effects and, after the integration of gene expression data, identifies the genes through which they are likely to act. Biological processes that are enriched in the genes of each cluster were then identified. We identified several clusters with unique patterns of effects. One of the clusters included variants associated with increased milk yield and decreased fertility, where the "archetypal" variant (i.e., the one with the largest effect) was associated with the GC gene, whereas others were associated with TRIM32, LRRK2, and U6-associated snRNA. These genes have been linked to transcription and alternative splicing, suggesting that these processes are likely contributors to the unfavorable relationship between the 2 traits. Another cluster, with archetypal variant near DGAT1 and including variants associated with CDH2, BTRC, SFRP2, ZFHX3, and SLITRK5, appeared to affect milk yield but have little effect on fertility. These genes have been linked to insulin, adipose tissue, and energy metabolism. A third cluster with archetypal variant near ZNF613 and including variants associated with ROBO1, EFNA5, PALLD, GPC6, and PTPRT were associated with fertility but not milk yield. These genes have been linked to GnRH neuronal migration, embryonic development, or ovarian function. The use of archetypal clustering to group variants with similar patterns of effects may assist in identifying the biological processes underlying correlated traits. The method is hypothesis generating and requires experimental confirmation. However, we have uncovered several novel mechanisms potentially affecting milk production and fertility such as GnRH neuronal migration. We anticipate our method to be a starting point for experimental research into novel pathways, which have been previously unexplored within the context of dairy production.

Stabilization of Epithelial β-Catenin Compromises Mammary Cell Fate Acquisition and Branching Morphogenesis

The Wnt/β-catenin pathway plays a critical role in cell fate specification, morphogenesis, and stem cell activation across diverse tissues, including the skin. In mammals, the embryonic surface epithelium gives rise to the epidermis as well as the associated appendages including hair follicles and mammary glands, both of which depend on epithelial Wnt/β-catenin activity for initiation of their development. Later on, Wnts are thought to enhance mammary gland growth and branching, whereas in hair follicles, they are essential for hair shaft formation. In this study, we report a strong downregulation of epithelial Wnt/β-catenin activity as the mammary bud progresses to branching. We show that forced activation of epithelial β-catenin severely compromises embryonic mammary gland branching. However, the phenotype of conditional Lef1-deficient embryos implies that a low level of Wnt/β-catenin activity is necessary for mammary cell survival. Transcriptomic profiling suggests that sustained high β-catenin activity leads to maintenance of mammary bud gene signature at the expense of outgrowth/branching gene signature. In addition, it leads to upregulation of epidermal differentiation genes. Strikingly, we find a partial switch to hair follicle fate early on upon stabilization of β-catenin, suggesting that the level of epithelial Wnt/β-catenin signaling activity may contribute to the choice between skin appendage identities.

Exosomal miR-122-3p represses the growth and metastasis of MCF-7/ADR cells by targeting GRK4-mediated activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway

Breast cancer (BC) is a common cancer whose incidence continues to grow while its medical progress has stagnated. miRNAs are vital messengers that facilitate communications among different cancer cells. This study was to reveal the correlation of miR-122-3p expression with BC metastasis and Adriamycin (ADM) resistance and its mechanism of inhibiting BC metastasis. We found that expression of miR-122-3p is negatively correlated with BC metastasis and is lower in MCF-7/ADR cells. Overexpression of miR-122-3p in MCF-7/ADR cancer cells impairs their ability to migrate, invade, and stimulate blood vessel formation. Further research found that miR-122-3p directly binds to the 3' UTR of GRK4, reducing the phosphorylation of LRP6, which activates the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, facilitating BC development and metastasis. In addition, we observed that miR-122-3p is present in MCF-7  cells, and treatment of MCF-7/ADR cells with MCF-7-derived exosomes, but not with exosomes from miR-122-3p-deficient MCF-7 cells, has identical effects to miR-122-3p overexpression. Data from xenograft experiments further suggest that excess miR-122-3p and MCF-7-derived exosomes inhibit the growth and metastasis of MCF-7/ADR cancer cells in vivo. In conclusion our data reveal that exosomal miR-122-3p may negatively regulate BC growth and metastasis, potentially serving as a diagnostic and druggable target for BC treatment.

Niche inflammatory signals control oscillating mammary regeneration and protect stem cells from cytotoxic stress

Stem cells are known for their resilience and enhanced activity post-stress. The mammary gland undergoes frequent remodeling and is subjected to recurring stress during the estrus cycle, but it remains unclear how mammary stem cells (MaSCs) respond to the stress and contribute to regeneration. We discovered that cytotoxic stress-induced activation of CD11c+ ductal macrophages aids stem cell survival and prevents differentiation. These macrophages boost Procr+ MaSC activity through IL1β-IL1R1-NF-κB signaling during the estrus cycle in an oscillating manner. Deleting IL1R1 in MaSCs results in stem cell loss and skewed luminal differentiation. Moreover, under cytotoxic stress from the chemotherapy agent paclitaxel, ductal macrophages secrete higher IL1β levels, promoting MaSC survival and preventing differentiation. Inhibiting IL1R1 sensitizes MaSCs to paclitaxel. Our findings reveal a recurring inflammatory process that regulates regeneration, providing insights into stress-induced inflammation and its impact on stem cell survival, potentially affecting cancer therapy efficacy.

Disruption of lineage integrity as a precursor to breast tumor initiation

Increase in lineage infidelity and/or imbalance is frequently observed around the earliest stage of breast tumor initiation. In response to disruption of homeostasis, differentiated cells can partially lose their identity and gain cellular plasticity, a process involving epigenome landscape remodeling. This increase of cellular plasticity may promote the malignant transformation of breast tumors and fuel their heterogeneity. Here, we review recent studies that have yield insights into important regulators of lineage integrity and mechanisms that trigger mammary epithelial lineage derail, and evaluate their impacts on breast tumor development.

PDHB-AS suppresses cervical cancer progression and cisplatin resistance via inhibition on Wnt/β-catenin pathway

Cervical cancer (CC) is the most prevalent gynecological malignancy occurring in the cervix. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) can act as oncogenes or anti-oncogenes in CC development. Here, we investigated the functional role and detailed mechanism of lncRNA pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 subunit beta antisense (PDHB-AS) in CC. At first, we found that PDHB-AS was significantly down-regulated in CC cells. Besides, overexpression of PDHB-AS repressed CC cell malignant behaviors. HKF-derived exosomes carried miR-4536-5p to CC cells and thereby inhibited PDHB-AS expression. Moreover, PDHB-AS inactivated the Wnt/β-catenin pathway via impeding the nuclear translocation of β-catenin in CC cells. In addition, miR-582-5p could bind with both PDHB-AS and Dickkopf-1 (DKK1). PDHB-AS recruited poly(A) binding protein cytoplasmic 1 (PABPC1) to inhibit Wnt7b expression. PDHB-AS interacted with RNA-binding motif protein X-linked (RBMX) to regulate cisplatin resistance in CC. Finally, we conducted in vivo experiments to confirm that HKF promoted CC tumor growth whereas PDHB-AS suppressed CC tumor growth. Collectively, PDHB-AS plays a tumor-suppressive role in the progression of CC, which suggests the therapeutic potential of PDHB-AS for CC.

Targeting Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in triple-negative breast cancer by benzylic organotrisulfides: Contribution of the released hydrogen sulfide towards potent anti-cancer activity

The potent anti-cancer activity of naturally occurring organopolysulfides has attracted wide research attention over the last two decades. Sustained donation of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) from organopolysulfides is found to be beneficial for the treatment of several organ-specific cancers. In the present study, for the first time, the mechanism of action for the potent anti-cancer activity of bis(3,5-dimethoxybenzyl) trisulfide 4 against highly aggressive triple-negative breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231) is described. Preliminary in vitro studies revealed potent anti-proliferative activity of the trisulfide 4 against triple-negative breast cancer cells with an IC₅₀ value of 1.0 μM. Mechanistic studies reveal that the compound exhibited anti-cancer activity, primarily by targeting and suppressing the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. The inactivation of the β-catenin level was associated with the cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase and the significant down-regulation of downstream signaling genes such as Cyclin D1 and c-Myc expression. Several control experiments with analogous organosulfur compounds and the key enzyme inhibitors reveal that the presence of a trisulfide unit in the compound is crucial for the desired inactivation of β-catenin expression, which is promoted by GSK-3β-induced phosphorylation of β-catenin and its proteasomal degradation. Moreover, the trisulfide unit or the released H₂S induced down-regulation of the p53 expression with the possible S-sulfhydration process led to p53-independent up-regulation of p21 expression. Therefore, the key results of this study highlighting the potency of synthetic benzylic organotrisulfide and the released H₂S towards the growth inhibition of triple-negative breast cancer via Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway would certainly be helpful for further studies and developing small-molecule anti-cancer therapeutics in future.

CDK14 inhibition reduces mammary stem cell activity and suppresses triple negative breast cancer progression

The Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway plays an important role in regulating mammary organogenesis and oncogenesis. However, therapeutic methods targeting the Wnt pathway against breast cancer have been limited. To address this challenge, we investigate the function of cyclin-dependent kinase 14 (CDK14), a member of the Wnt signaling pathway, in mammary development and breast cancer progression. We show that CDK14 is expressed in the mammary basal layer and elevated in triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). CDK14 knockdown reduces the colony-formation ability and regeneration capacity of mammary basal cells and inhibits the progression of murine MMTV-Wnt-1 basal-like mammary tumor. CDK14 knockdown or pharmacological inhibition by FMF-04-159-2 suppresses the progression and metastasis of TNBC. Mechanistically, CDK14 inhibition inhibits mammary regeneration and TNBC progression by attenuating Wnt/β-catenin signaling. These findings highlight the significance of CDK14 in mammary development and TNBC progression, shedding light on CDK14 as a promising therapeutic target for TNBC.

Multiple roles for Bcl-3 in mammary gland branching, stromal collagen invasion, involution and tumor pathology

BACKGROUND

The Bcl-3 protein is an atypical member of the inhibitor of -κB family that has dual roles as a transcriptional repressor and a coactivator for dimers of NF-κB p50 and p52. Bcl-3 is expressed in mammary adenocarcinomas and can promote tumorigenesis and survival signaling and has a key role in tumor metastasis. In this study, we have investigated the role of Bcl-3 in the normal mammary gland and impact on tumor pathology.

METHODS

We utilized bcl-3^-/- mice to study mammary gland structure in virgins and during gestation, lactation and early involution. Expression of involution-associated genes and proteins and putative Bcl-3 target genes was examined by qRT-PCR and immunoblot analysis. Cell autonomous branching morphogenesis and collagen I invasion properties of bcl-3^-/- organoids were tested in 3D hydrogel cultures. The role of Bcl-3 in tumorigenesis and tumor pathology was also assessed using a stochastic carcinogen-induced mammary tumor model.

RESULTS

Bcl-3^-/- mammary glands demonstrated reduced branching complexity in virgin and pregnant mice. This defect was recapitulated in vitro where significant defects in bud formation were observed in bcl-3^-/- mammary organoid cultures. Bcl-3^-/- organoids showed a striking defect in protrusive collective fibrillary collagen I invasion associated with reduced expression of Fzd1 and Twist2. Virgin and pregnant bcl-3^-/- glands showed increased apoptosis and rapid increases in lysosomal cell death and apoptosis after forced weaning compared to WT mice. Bcl-2 and Id3 are strongly induced in WT but not bcl-3^-/- glands in early involution. Tumors in WT mice were predominately adenocarcinomas with NF-κB activation, while bcl-3^-/- lesions were largely squamous lacking NF-κB and with low Bcl-2 expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, our results demonstrate that Bcl-3 has a key function in mammary gland branching morphogenesis, in part by regulation of genes involved in extracellular matrix invasion. Markedly reduced levels of pro-survival proteins expression in bcl-3 null compared to WT glands 24 h post-weaning indicate that Bcl-3 has a role in moderating the rate of early phase involution. Lastly, a reduced incidence of bcl-3^-/- mammary adenocarcinomas versus squamous lesions indicates that Bcl-3 supports the progression of epithelial but not metaplastic cancers.

Wnt Signaling in the Breast: From Development to Disease

The Wnt cascade is a primordial developmental signaling pathway that plays a myriad of essential functions throughout development and adult homeostasis in virtually all animal species. Aberrant Wnt activity is implicated in embryonic and tissue morphogenesis defects, and several diseases, most notably cancer. The role of Wnt signaling in mammary gland development and breast cancer initiation, maintenance, and progression is far from being completely understood and is rather shrouded in controversy. In this review, we dissect the fundamental role of Wnt signaling in mammary gland development and adult homeostasis and explore how defects in its tightly regulated and intricated molecular network are interlinked with cancer, with a focus on the breast.

A human breast atlas integrating single-cell proteomics and transcriptomics

The breast is a dynamic organ whose response to physiological and pathophysiological conditions alters its disease susceptibility, yet the specific effects of these clinical variables on cell state remain poorly annotated. We present a unified, high-resolution breast atlas by integrating single-cell RNA-seq, mass cytometry, and cyclic immunofluorescence, encompassing a myriad of states. We define cell subtypes within the alveolar, hormone-sensing, and basal epithelial lineages, delineating associations of several subtypes with cancer risk factors, including age, parity, and BRCA2 germline mutation. Of particular interest is a subset of alveolar cells termed basal-luminal (BL) cells, which exhibit poor transcriptional lineage fidelity, accumulate with age, and carry a gene signature associated with basal-like breast cancer. We further utilize a medium-depletion approach to identify molecular factors regulating cell-subtype proportion in organoids. Together, these data are a rich resource to elucidate diverse mammary cell states.

A Whole Genome Sequencing-Based Genome-Wide Association Study Reveals the Potential Associations of Teat Number in Qingping Pigs

Teat number plays an important role in the reproductive performance of sows and the growth of piglets. However, the quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and candidate genes for the teat number-related traits in Qingping pigs remain unknown. In this study, we performed GWAS based on whole-genome single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and insertions/deletions (Indels) for the total number of teats and five other related traits in 100 Qingping pigs. SNPs and Indels of all 100 pigs were genotyped using 10× whole genome resequencing. GWAS using General Linear Models (GLM) detected a total of 28 SNPs and 45 Indels as peak markers for these six traits. We also performed GWAS for the absolute difference between left and right teat number (ADIFF) using Fixed and random model Circulating Probability Unification (FarmCPU). The most strongly associated SNP and Indel with a distance of 562,788 bp were significantly associated with ADIFF in both GLM and FarmCPU models. In the 1-Mb regions of the most strongly associated SNP and Indel, there were five annotated genes, including TRIML1, TRIML2, ZFP42, FAT1 and MTNR1A. We also highlighted TBX3 as an interesting candidate gene for SSC14. Enrichment analysis of candidate genes suggested the Wnt signaling pathway may contribute to teat number-related traits. This study expanded significant marker-trait associations for teat number and provided useful molecular markers and candidate genes for teat number improvement in the breeding of sows.

Parallels in signaling between development and regeneration in ectodermal organs

Ectodermal organs originate from the outermost germ layer of the developing embryo and include the skin, hair, tooth, nails, and exocrine glands. These organs develop through tightly regulated, sequential and reciprocal epithelial-mesenchymal crosstalk, and they eventually assume various morphologies and functions while retaining the ability to regenerate. As with many other tissues in the body, the development and morphogenesis of these organs are regulated by a set of common signaling pathways, such as Shh, Wnt, Bmp, Notch, Tgf-β, and Eda. However, subtle differences in the temporal activation, the multiple possible combinations of ligand-receptor activation, the various cofactors, as well as the underlying epigenetic modulation determine how each organ develops into its adult form. Although each organ has been studied separately in considerable detail, the mechanisms underlying the parallels and differences in signaling that regulate their development have rarely been investigated. First, we will use the tooth, the hair follicle, and the mammary gland as representative ectodermal organs to explore how the development of signaling centers and establishment of stem cell populations influence overall growth and morphogenesis. Then we will compare how some of the major signaling pathways (Shh, Wnt, Notch and Yap/Taz) differentially regulate developmental events. Finally, we will discuss how signaling regulates regenerative processes in all three.

Procr functions as a signaling receptor and is essential for the maintenance and self-renewal of mammary stem cells

The protein C receptor (Procr) has been implicated as a stem cell surface marker in several tissues. It is unknown whether Procr acts as a functional signaling receptor in stem cells. Here, by conditional knockout in mammary stem cells (MaSCs), we demonstrate that Procr is essential for mammary gland development and homeostasis. Through proteomics profiling, we identify that, upon stimulation by the ligand protein C, Procr interacts with heat shock protein 90 (HSP90AA1) via its short cytoplasmic tail, recruiting Src and IGF1R to the complex at the plasma membrane. We show that Procr acts as a signaling receptor of protein C in regulation of MaSCs through HSP90, Src, and IGF1R in vitro. In vivo, IGF1R deletion in MaSCs displays similar phenotypes to Procr deletion. These findings illustrate the essential role of Procr signaling in MaSC maintenance, shedding light onto the molecular regulation by Procr in tissue stem cells.

In vivo imaging of mammary epithelial cell dynamics in response to lineage-biased Wnt/β-catenin activation

Real-time in vivo imaging provides an essential window into the spatiotemporal cellular events contributing to tissue development and pathology. By coupling longitudinal intravital imaging with genetic lineage tracing, here we capture the earliest cellular events arising in response to active Wnt/β-catenin signaling and the ensuing impact on the organization and differentiation of the mammary epithelium. This enables us to interrogate how Wnt/β-catenin regulates the dynamics of distinct subpopulations of mammary epithelial cells in vivo and in real time. We show that β-catenin stabilization, when targeted to either the mammary luminal or basal epithelial lineage, leads to cellular rearrangements that precipitate the formation of hyperplastic lesions that undergo squamous transdifferentiation. These results enhance our understanding of the earliest stages of hyperplastic lesion formation in vivo and reveal that, in mammary neoplastic development, β-catenin activation dictates a hair follicle/epidermal differentiation program independently of the targeted cell of origin.

The Prognostic Value of the Developmental Gene FZD6 in Young Saudi Breast Cancer Patients: A Biomarkers Discovery and Cancer Inducers OncoScreen Approach

Wnt signalling receptors, Frizzleds (FZDs), play a pivotal role in many cellular events during embryonic development and cancer. Female breast cancer (BC) is currently the worldwide leading incident cancer type that cause 1 in 6 cancer-related death. FZD receptors expression in cancer was shown to be associated with tumour development and patient outcomes including recurrence and survival. FZD6 received little attention for its role in BC and hence we analysed its expression pattern in a Saudi BC cohort to assess its prognostic potential and unravel the impacted signalling pathway. Paraffin blocks from approximately 405 randomly selected BC patients aged between 25 and 70 years old were processed for tissue microarray using an automated tissue arrayer and then subjected to FZD6 immunohistochemistry staining using the Ventana platform. Besides, Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) knowledgebase was used to decipher the upstream and downstream regulators of FZD6 in BC. TargetScan and miRabel target-prediction databases were used to identify the potential microRNA to regulate FZD6 expression in BC. Results showed that 60% of the BC samples had a low expression pattern while 40% showed a higher expression level. FZD6 expression analysis showed a significant correlation with tumour invasion (p < 0.05), and borderline significance with tumour grade (p = 0.07). FZD6 expression showed a highly significant association with the BC patients’ survival outcomes. This was mainly due to the overall patients’ cohort where tumours with FZD6 elevated expression showed higher recurrence rates (DFS, p < 0.0001, log-rank) and shorter survival times (DSS, p < 0.02, log-rank). Interestingly, the FZD6 prognostic value was more potent in younger BC patients as compared to those with late onset of the disease. TargetScan microRNA target-prediction analysis and validated by miRabel showed that FZD6 is a potential target for a considerable number of microRNAs expressed in BC. The current study demonstrates a potential prognostic role of FZD6 expression in young BC female patients and provides a better understanding of the involved molecular silencing machinery of the Wnt/FZD6 signalling. Our results should provide a better understanding of FZD6 role in BC by adding more knowledge that should help in BC prevention and theranostics.

Effects of Pubertal Exposure to Butyl Benzyl Phthalate, Perfluorooctanoic Acid, and Zeranol on Mammary Gland Development and Tumorigenesis in Rats

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs)—including butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and zeranol (α-ZAL, referred to as ZAL hereafter)—can interfere with the endocrine system and produce adverse effects. It remains unclear whether pubertal exposure to low doses of BBP, PFOA, and ZAL has an impact on breast development and tumorigenesis. We exposed female Sprague Dawley rats to BBP, PFOA, or ZAL through gavage for 21 days, starting on day 21, and analyzed their endocrine organs, serum hormones, mammary glands, and transcriptomic profiles of the mammary glands at days 50 and 100. We also conducted a tumorigenesis study for rats treated with PFOA and ZAL using a 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) model. Our results demonstrated that pubertal exposure to BBP, PFOA, and ZAL affected endocrine organs and serum hormones, and induced phenotypic and transcriptomic changes. The exposure to PFOA + ZAL induced the most phenotypic and transcriptomic changes in the mammary gland. PFOA + ZAL downregulated the expression of genes related to development at day 50, whereas it upregulated genes associated with tumorigenesis at day 100. PFOA + ZAL exposure also decreased rat mammary tumor latency, reduced the overall survival of rats after DMBA challenge, and affected the histopathology of mammary tumors. Therefore, our study suggests that exposure to low doses of EDCs during the pubertal period could induce changes in the endocrine system and mammary gland development in rats. The inhibition of mammary gland development by PFOA + ZAL might increase the risk of developing mammary tumors through activation of signaling pathways associated with tumorigenesis.

Biological effects and regulation of IGFBP5 in breast cancer

The insulin-like growth factor receptor (IGF1R) pathway plays an important role in cancer progression. In breast cancer, the IGF1R pathway is linked to estrogen-dependent signaling. Regulation of IGF1R activity is complex and involves the actions of its ligands IGF1 and IGF2 and those of IGF-binding proteins (IGFBPs). Six IGFBPs are known that share the ability to form complexes with the IGFs, by which they control the bioavailability of these ligands. Besides, each of the IGFBPs have specific features. In this review, the focus lies on the biological effects and regulation of IGFBP5 in breast cancer. In breast cancer, estrogen is a critical regulator of IGFBP5 transcription. It exerts its effect through an intergenic enhancer loop that is part of the chromosomal breast cancer susceptibility region 2q35. The biological effects of IGFBP5 depend upon the cellular context. By inhibiting or promoting IGF1R signaling, IGFBP5 can either act as a tumor suppressor or promoter. Additionally, IGFBP5 possesses IGF-independent activities, which contribute to the complexity by which IGFBP5 interferes with cancer cell behavior.

Immune Milieu and Genomic Alterations Set the Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Immunomodulatory Subtype Tumor Behavior

Simple Summary

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive and highly heterogeneous breast cancer subtype, both molecular and transcriptomic. Gene expression patterns identified seven TNBC subtypes; basal-like 1 (BL1), basal-like 2 (BL2), immunomodulatory (IM), mesenchymal (M), mesenchymal stem-like (MSL), luminal androgen receptor (LAR), and unstable (UNS). Herein, we contrasted the IM subtype with non-IM TNBC, including clinical, histopathological, and molecular variables. Our results showed that the IM subtype featured an increased FOXP3+ TILs infiltration and a higher CTLA-4 and PD-L1 expression compared with non-IM tumors. Long intergenic non-coding RNAs associated with the immune response through transcriptomic and enrichment analyses characterized the IM-subtype enriched by the β-catenin signaling pathway. Additionally, DNA sequencing identified differences in mutation rates as well as some specific mutations. These results should motivate the design of future clinical trials in which the benefit of immune-based therapy in this subgroup of patients could be evaluated.

Abstract

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive and heterogeneous disease. Seven subtypes have been described based on gene expression patterns. Herein, we characterized the tumor biology and clinical behavior of the immunomodulatory (IM) subtype. Methods: Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tumor samples from 68 high-risk (stage III-IV) TNBC patients were analyzed through microarrays, immunohistochemistry, and DNA sequencing. Results: The IM subtype was identified in 24% of TNBC tumor samples and characterized by a higher intratumoral (intT) and stromal (strml) infiltration of FOXP3+ TILs (Treg) compared with non-IM subtypes. Further, PD-L1+ (>1%) expression was significantly higher, as well as CTLA-4+ intT and strml expression in the IM subtype. Differential expression and gene set enrichment analysis identified biological processes associated with the immune system. Pathway analysis revealed enrichment of the β-catenin signaling pathway. The non-coding analysis led to seven Long Intergenic Non-Protein Coding RNAs (lincRNAs) (6 up-regulated and 1 down-regulated) that were associated with a favorable prognosis in the TNBC-IM subtype. The DNA sequencing highlighted two genes relevant to immune system responses: CTNNB1 (Catenin β-1) and IDH1. Conclusion: the IM subtype showed a distinct immune microenvironment, as well as subtype-specific genomic alterations. Characterizing TNBC at a molecular and transcriptomic level might guide immune-based therapy in this subgroup of patients.

Comparative whey proteome analysis of small-tailed Han and DairyMeade ovine milk

We characterized the proteome profile of mid-lactation small-tailed Han (STH) and DairyMeade (DM) ovine milk in order to explore physiological variation and differences in milk traits between the two breeds. Methodology combined a tandem mass tag (TMT) proteomic approach with LC-MS/MS technology. A total of 656 proteins were identified in STH and DM ovine milk, of which 17and 29 proteins were significantly upregulated (P < 0.05) in STH and DM, respectively. Immune-related proteins and disease-related proteins were highly expressed in STH milk, whereas S100A2 and AEBP1 were highly expressed in DM milk, which had beneficial effects on mammary gland development and milk yield. Our results provide a theoretical basis for future breeding of dairy sheep.

G3BP1 promotes human breast cancer cell proliferation through coordinating with GSK-3β and stabilizing β-catenin

Ras-GTPase activating SH3 domain-binding protein 1 (G3BP1) is a multifunctional binding protein involved in the development of a variety of human cancers. However, the role of G3BP1 in breast cancer progression remains largely unknown. In this study, we report that G3BP1 is upregulated and correlated with poor prognosis in breast cancer. Overexpression of G3BP1 promotes breast cancer cell proliferation by stimulating β-catenin signaling, which upregulates a number of proliferation-related genes. We further show that G3BP1 improves the stability of β-catenin by inhibiting its ubiquitin-proteasome degradation rather than affecting the transcription of β-catenin. Mechanistically, elevated G3BP1 interacts with and inactivates GSK-3β to suppress β-catenin phosphorylation and degradation. Disturbing the G3BP1-GSK-3β interaction accelerates the degradation of β-catenin, impairing the proliferative capacity of breast cancer cells. Our study demonstrates that the regulatory mechanism of the G3BP1/GSK-3β/β-catenin axis may be a potential therapeutic target for breast cancer.

Newly characterized bovine mammary stromal region with epithelial properties supports representative epithelial outgrowth development from transplanted stem cells

Limited outgrowth development of bovine mammary epithelial stem cells transplanted into de-epithelialized mouse fat pads restricts advanced studies on this productive organ's development and renewal. We challenged the mouse-bovine incompatibility by implanting parenchymal adjacent or distant bovine stromal layers (close and far stroma, respectively) into the mouse fat pad to serve as an endogenous niche for transplanted stem cells. The close stroma better supported stem cell take rate and outgrowth development. The diameter of these open duct-like structures represented and occasionally exceeded that of the endogenous ducts and appeared 8.3-fold wider than the capsule-like structures developed in the mouse fat pad after similar cell transplantation. RNA-Seq revealed lower complement activity in this layer, associated with secretion of specific laminins and WNT proteins favoring epithelial outgrowth development. The close stroma appeared genetically more similar to the parenchyma than to the far stroma due to epithelial characteristics, mainly of fibroblasts, including expression of epithelial markers, milk protein genes, and functional mammary claudins. Gene markers and activators of the mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition were highly enriched in the epithelial gene cluster and may contribute to the acquired epithelial properties of this stromal layer.

mRNA coexpression patterns of Wnt pathway components and their clinicopathological associations in breast and colorectal cancer

Aberrant Wnt signaling is implicated in carcinogenesis triggering efforts for the development of new therapeutic agents, many of which have entered clinical trials. We extend our previous analysis of WNT3, FZD7, LEF1 expression levels in breast and colorectal cancer including WNT2, FZD4 and β-catenin expression, in an effort to delineate their relative expression levels along with concurrent expression patterns and possible prognostic value. We analyzed 82 breast and 102 colorectal carcinomas for relative mRNA expression levels of the investigated genes by RT-PCR relative quantification with the ΔΔCt method. Statistical analysis was performed in order to determine associations of relative mRNA expression and linear correlations. β-catenin expression was determined by immunochemistry. Regarding breast carcinomas, decreased relative mRNA expression levels of WNT2, FZD4 were found frequently and WNT2 expression was correlated with ER/ PR status (p = 0.045/p = 0.028), whereas β-catenin with grade (p = 0.026). In colorectal carcinomas, increased relative mRNA expression levels of WNT2 and FZD4 were found in 59% and 32% of cases respectively, whereas β-catenin showed decreased mRNA expression levels in 57% of cases and a correlation with pN-category (p = 0.037). Linear correlations were observed between WNT2/FZD4 (R=0.542, p < 0.001), WNT2/β-catenin (R=0.254, p = 0.010), FZD4/β-catenin (R=0.406, p < 0.001) expression and a correlation between mRNA expression and membranous/cytoplasmic β-catenin emerged (p = 0.039/0.046). Our results suggest a possible clinical significance for Wnt pathway gene expression levels in both tumour types. The concurrent expression of the investigated genes as well as the different expression profiles, underlines the complexity of this pathway and the necessity of patient selection in order to maximize the efficacy of drugs targeting Wnt pathway.

Nuclear Mechanisms Involved in Endocrine Resistance

Endocrine therapy is a standard treatment offered to patients with ERα (estrogen receptor α)-positive breast cancer. In endocrine therapy, ERα is either directly targeted by anti-estrogens or indirectly by aromatase inhibitors which cause estrogen deficiency. Resistance to these drugs (endocrine resistance) compromises the efficiency of this treatment and requires additional measures. Endocrine resistance is often caused by deregulation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway and/or cyclin-dependent kinase 4 and 6 activities allowing inhibitors of these factors to be used clinically to counteract endocrine resistance. The nuclear mechanisms involved in endocrine resistance are beginning to emerge. Exploring these mechanisms may reveal additional druggable targets, which could help to further improve patients' outcome in an endocrine resistance setting. This review intends to summarize our current knowledge on the nuclear mechanisms linked to endocrine resistance.

Silencing of KIF18B restricts proliferation and invasion and enhances the chemosensitivity of breast cancer via modulating Akt/GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway

Kinesin family member 18B (KIF18B) is a new tumor-associated protein that contributes to the carcinogenesis of multiple malignancies. However, the detailed relevance of KIF18B in breast cancer has not been fully elucidated. This work aimed was to evaluate a possible relationship between KIF18B and breast cancer progression. Our findings show KIF18B is increased in breast cancer and demonstrate that high KIF18B level predicts a reduced survival rate. Cellular functional studies revealed that knockdown of KIF18B markedly reduces the proliferation, invasion, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition of breast cancer cells and enhances their chemosensitivity toward doxorubicin. Further studies showed that KIF18B modulates the level of phospho-Akt, phospho-glycogen synthase kinase-3β, and β-catenin. Notably, suppression of Akt abolished KIF18B-overexpression-induced increases in activation of Wnt/β-catenin pathway. In addition, re-expression of β-catenin reversed KIF18B-silencing-induced cancer-promoting effect. In vivo animal experiments elucidated that knockdown of KIF18B significantly weakened the tumorigenicity of breast cancer cells. Taken together, data of this study illustrate that KIF18B exerts a potential cancer-promoting function in breast cancer via enhancement of Wnt/β-catenin pathway through modulation of the Akt/GSK-3β axis.

Parsing β-catenin's cell adhesion and Wnt signaling functions in malignant mammary tumor progression

During malignant progression, epithelial cancer cells dissolve their cell-cell adhesion and gain invasive features. By virtue of its dual function, β-catenin contributes to cadherin-mediated cell-cell adhesion, and it determines the transcriptional output of Wnt signaling: via its N terminus, it recruits the signaling coactivators Bcl9 and Pygopus, and via the C terminus, it interacts with the general transcriptional machinery. This duality confounds the simple loss-of-function analysis of Wnt signaling in cancer progression. In many cancer types including breast cancer, the functional contribution of β-catenin's transcriptional activities, as compared to its adhesion functions, to tumor progression has remained elusive. Employing the mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV)-PyMT mouse model of metastatic breast cancer, we compared the complete elimination of β-catenin with the specific ablation of its signaling outputs in mammary tumor cells. Notably, the complete lack of β-catenin resulted in massive apoptosis of mammary tumor cells. In contrast, the loss of β-catenin's transcriptional activity resulted in a reduction of primary tumor growth, tumor invasion, and metastasis formation in vivo. These phenotypic changes were reflected by stalled cell cycle progression and diminished epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and cell migration of breast cancer cells in vitro. Transcriptome analysis revealed subsets of genes which were specifically regulated by β-catenin's transcriptional activities upon stimulation with Wnt3a or during TGF-β-induced EMT. Our results uncouple the signaling from the adhesion function of β-catenin and underline the importance of Wnt/β-catenin-dependent transcription in malignant tumor progression of breast cancer.

Inhibition of cell proliferation and promotion of acinus-like structure formation from goat mammary epithelial cells via Wnt/β-catenin signaling

Mammary epithelial cells have been suggested to be central to control the expansion and remodeling of mammary gland. Wnt/β-catenin signaling modulates cell fate in animals throughout their life span, and represents indispensable roles in tissue homeostasis, cell renewal, and regeneration in organs. Here, we utilized the small molecule 6-bromoindirubin-3'-oxime (BIO), an activator of Wnt/β-catenin signaling, and investigated whether Wnt/β-catenin signaling regulated the proliferation and acinus-like structure formation of goat mammary epithelial cells (GMECs). We showed that isolated GMECs displayed the typical epithelial cobblestone morphology and expressed specific markers of mammary epithelial cells. BIO inhibited the proliferation of GMECs and decreased the expression of proliferation marker c-myc and cell cycle protein cyclin D1. However, the ability of GMECs to form spheroids was accelerated, and the level of E-cadherin mRNA was upregulated with BIO treatment. E-cadherin showed a bright cytomembrane with DMSO treatment, yet E-cadherin was present in cytomembrane and cytoplasm in GMECs with BIO treatment. Meanwhile, BIO increased the protein level of β-catenin and enhanced the translocation of β-catenin into the nucleus in GMECs. Furthermore, the mRNA level of Axin2 was also upregulated. This study suggested that Wnt/β-catenin signaling may play an important role in the proliferation and the acinus-like formation of GMECs.

Identification of a Two-MicroRNA Signature in Plasma as a Novel Biomarker for Very Early Diagnosis of Breast Cancer

Simple Summary

Breast cancer diagnosis at the initial stage of the disease considerably improves prognosis and survival rates. This retrospective study aimed to develop and validate a plasma microRNA signature as a non-invasive biomarker for early-stage breast cancer diagnosis. We confirmed in a testing cohort of 54 BC patients and 89 healthy volunteers the value of a signature based on miR-30b and miR-99a levels in plasma samples for stage I breast cancer detection. Furthermore, our results were blindly validated in a second cohort of 74 breast cancer and 74 healthy samples. The proposed microRNA signature presented high value as a fast, cost-effective, and non-invasive biomarker for early-stage breast cancer detection, which will lead to a better prognosis for breast cancer patients.

Abstract

The early diagnosis of breast cancer is essential to improve patients’ survival rate. In this context, microRNAs have been described as potential diagnostic biomarkers for breast cancer. Particularly, circulating microRNAs have a strong value as non-invasive biomarkers. Herein, we assessed the potential of a microRNA signature based on miR-30b-5p and miR-99a-5p levels in plasma as a diagnostic biomarker for breast cancer. This two-microRNA signature was constructed by Principal Component Analysis and its prognostic value was assessed in a discovery cohort and blindly validated in a second cohort from an independent institution. ROC curve analysis and biomarker performance parameter evaluation demonstrated that our proposed signature presents a high value as a non-invasive biomarker for very early detection of breast cancer. In addition, pathway enrichment analysis identified three of the well-known pathways involved in cancer as targets of the two microRNAs.

Endothelial Wnts control mammary epithelial patterning via fibroblast signaling

Endothelial and fibroblast niches are crucial for epithelial organs. How these heterotypic cells interact is of great interest. In this study, we reveal an axis of signaling in which fibroblasts relay Wnt signals from the endothelial niche to organize epithelial patterning. We generate an Axin2-membrane GFP (mGFP) reporter mouse and observe robust Wnt/β-catenin signaling activities in fibroblasts surrounding the mammary epithelium. To enable cell-type-specific gene manipulation in vitro, we establish an organoid system via coculture of endothelial cells (ECs), fibroblasts, and mammary epithelial cells. Deletion of β-catenin in fibroblasts impedes epithelium branching, and ECs are responsible for the activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in fibroblasts. In vivo, EC deletion of Wntless inhibits Wnt/β-catenin signaling activity in fibroblasts, rendering a reduction in epithelial branches. These findings highlight the significance of the endothelial niche in tissue patterning, shedding light on the interactive mechanisms in which distinct niche components orchestrate epithelial organogenesis and tissue homeostasis.

Inhibiting β-catenin disables nucleolar functions in triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) patients with upregulated Wnt/β-catenin signaling often have poor clinical prognoses. During pathological examinations of breast cancer sections stained for β-catenin, we made the serendipitous observation that relative to non-TNBC, specimens from TNBC patients have a greater abundance of nucleoli. There was a remarkable direct relationship between nuclear β-catenin and greater numbers of nucleoli in TNBC tissues. These surprising observations spurred our investigations to decipher the differential functional relevance of the nucleolus in TNBC versus non-TNBC cells. Comparative nucleolar proteomics revealed that the majority of the nucleolar proteins in TNBC cells were potential targets of β-catenin signaling. Next, we undertook an analysis of the nucleolar proteome in TNBC cells in response to β-catenin inhibition. This effort revealed that a vital component of pre-rRNA processing, LAS1 like ribosome biogenesis factor (LAS1L) was significantly decreased in the nucleoli of β-catenin inhibited TNBC cells. Here we demonstrate that LAS1L protein expression is significantly elevated in TNBC patients, and it functionally is important for mammary tumor growth in xenograft models and enables invasive attributes. Our observations highlight a novel function for β-catenin in orchestrating nucleolar activity in TNBCs.

Wnt (canonical and non canonical) pathways in breast carcinoma with extensive vascular invasion and inflammatory breast carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Breast carcinoma with extensive peritumoral vascular invasion (ePVI-BC) is a cancer with massive vascular invasion (>10) detected in more than one slide. This neoplasm shows clinic-pathological affinity with inflammatory breast carcinoma (IBC). In this paper we evaluate their biological relationship through the study of surrogate markers (β-catenin and NFAT5) of Canonical (cWnt) and non-canonical (nWnt) Wnt pathways activation.

METHODS

By immunoistochemistry, we investigate β-catenin and NFAT5 in 39 IBC, 74 ePVI-BC and 84 control cases (CG-BC).

RESULTS

cWnt was activated in 100 % of ePVI-BC, in 64 % of IBC and 10 % of CG-BC. nWnt was activated in 20 % of ePVI-BC, 50 % of IBC and 1% of CG-BC. The prognosis of carcinomas with nWnt activated was poor similar to IBC. The statistical analysis evidences as both the pathways are synergistic in malignant progression and survival time. β-catenin show an important association with prognostic factors and NFAT5 shows a relevant prognostic role on OS (p = 1.5*10-6) and DFS (P = 1,2*10-4). nWnt is associated with a worse prognosis independently of cWnt. cWnt is associated with adverse prognosis (DFS p = 0.0469; OS p = 0.004891) but its prognostic role is indifferent in carcinoma with nWnt activated.

CONCLUSIONS

Canonical Wnt pathway is involved in malignant progression with dominant role for vascular invasion whereas non canonical Wnt pathway plays an important role on survival time including the capacity to identify carcinomas with IBC-like prognosis. Furthermore ePVI may represent a "prodromal form of IBC" as demonstrated by its clinicopathological and biological similarity with IBC.

Prune-1 drives polarization of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) within the lung metastatic niche in triple-negative breast cancer

M2-tumor-associated macrophages (M2-TAMs) in the tumor microenvironment represent a prognostic indicator for poor outcome in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC).

Here we show that Prune-1 overexpression in human TNBC patients has positive correlation to lung metastasis and infiltrating M2-TAMs. Thus, we demonstrate that Prune-1 promotes lung metastasis in a genetically engineered mouse model of metastatic TNBC augmenting M2-polarization of TAMs within the tumor microenvironment. Thus, this occurs through TGF-β enhancement, IL-17F secretion, and extracellular vesicle protein content modulation.

We also find murine inactivating gene variants in human TNBC patient cohorts that are involved in activation of the innate immune response, cell adhesion, apoptotic pathways, and DNA repair. Altogether, we indicate that the overexpression of Prune-1, IL-10, COL4A1, ILR1, and PDGFB, together with inactivating mutations of PDE9A, CD244, Sirpb1b, SV140, Iqca1, and PIP5K1B genes, might represent a route of metastatic lung dissemination that need future prognostic validations.

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Prune-1 correlates to M2-TAMs confirming lung metastatic dissemination in GEMM

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Cytokines and EV proteins are responsible of M2-TAMs polarization processes

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A small molecule with immunomodulatory properties ameliorates metastatic dissemination

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Identification of gene variants within immune response and cell adhesion in TNBC

The Wnt Signalling Pathway: A Tailored Target in Cancer

Cancer is one of the greatest public health challenges. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 9.6 million cancer deaths have been reported in 2018. The most common cancers include lung, breast, colorectal, prostate, skin (non-melanoma) and stomach cancer. The unbalance of physiological signalling pathways due to the acquisition of mutations in tumour cells is considered the most common cancer driver. The Wingless-related integration site (Wnt)/β-catenin pathway is crucial for tissue development and homeostasis in all animal species and its dysregulation is one of the most relevant events linked to cancer development and dissemination. The canonical and the non-canonical Wnt/β-catenin pathways are known to control both physiological and pathological processes, including cancer. Herein, the impact of the Wnt/β-catenin cascade in driving cancers from different origin has been examined. Finally, based on the impact of Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) on tumour growth, invasion and chemoresistance, and their role as tumour diagnostic and prognostic tools, an overview of the current knowledge linking EVs to the Wnt/β-catenin pathway is also discussed.

RAB6 GTPase regulates mammary secretory function by controlling the activation of STAT5

The Golgi-associated RAB GTPases, RAB6A and RAB6A', regulate anterograde and retrograde transport pathways from and to the Golgi. In vitro, RAB6A/A' control several cellular functions including cell division, migration, adhesion and polarity. However, their role remains poorly described in vivo Here, we generated BlgCre; Rab6a ^F/F mice presenting a specific deletion of Rab6a in the mammary luminal secretory lineage during gestation and lactation. Rab6a loss severely impaired the differentiation, maturation and maintenance of the secretory tissue, compromising lactation. The mutant epithelium displayed a decreased activation of STAT5, a key regulator of the lactogenic process primarily governed by prolactin. Data obtained with a mammary epithelial cell line suggested that defective STAT5 activation might originate from a perturbed transport of the prolactin receptor, altering its membrane expression and signaling cascade. Despite the major functional defects observed upon Rab6a deletion, the polarized organization of the mammary epithelial bilayer was preserved. Altogether, our data reveal a crucial role for RAB6A/A' in the lactogenic function of the mammary gland and suggest that the trafficking pathways controlled by RAB6A/A' depend on cell-type specialization and tissue context.

Involvement of the Estrogen and Progesterone Axis in Cancer Stemness: Elucidating Molecular Mechanisms and Clinical Significance

Estrogen and progesterone regulate the growth and development of human tissues, including the reproductive system and breasts, through estrogen and progesterone receptors, respectively. These receptors are also important indicators for the clinical prognosis of breast cancer and various reproductive cancers. Many studies have reported that cancer stem cells (CSCs) play a key role in tumor initiation, progression, metastasis, and recurrence. Although the role of estrogen and progesterone in human organs and various cancers has been studied, the molecular mechanisms underlying the action of these hormones on CSCs remain unclear. Therefore, further elucidation of the effects of estrogen and progesterone on CSCs should provide a new direction for developing pertinent therapies. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the estrogen and progesterone axis involved in cancer stemness and discuss potential therapeutic strategies to inhibit CSCs by targeting relevant pathways.

Counteracting Chemoresistance with Metformin in Breast Cancers: Targeting Cancer Stem Cells

Despite the leaps and bounds in achieving success in the management and treatment of breast cancers through surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, breast cancer remains the most frequently occurring cancer in women and the most common cause of cancer-related deaths among women. Systemic therapeutic approaches, such as chemotherapy, although beneficial in treating and curing breast cancer subjects with localized breast tumors, tend to fail in metastatic cases of the disease due to (a) an acquired resistance to the chemotherapeutic drug and (b) the development of intrinsic resistance to therapy. The existence of cancer stem cells (CSCs) plays a crucial role in both acquired and intrinsic chemoresistance. CSCs are less abundant than terminally differentiated cancer cells and confer chemoresistance through a unique altered metabolism and capability to evade the immune response system. Furthermore, CSCs possess active DNA repair systems, transporters that support multidrug resistance (MDR), advanced detoxification processes, and the ability to self-renew and differentiate into tumor progenitor cells, thereby supporting cancer invasion, metastasis, and recurrence/relapse. Hence, current research is focusing on targeting CSCs to overcome resistance and improve the efficacy of the treatment and management of breast cancer. Studies revealed that metformin (1, 1-dimethylbiguanide), a widely used anti-hyperglycemic agent, sensitizes tumor response to various chemotherapeutic drugs. Metformin selectively targets CSCs and improves the hypoxic microenvironment, suppresses the tumor metastasis and inflammation, as well as regulates the metabolic programming, induces apoptosis, and reverses epithelial-mesenchymal transition and MDR. Here, we discuss cancer (breast cancer) and chemoresistance, the molecular mechanisms of chemoresistance in breast cancers, and metformin as a chemo-sensitizing/re-sensitizing agent, with a particular focus on breast CSCs as a critical contributing factor to acquired and intrinsic chemoresistance. The review outlines the prospects and directions for a better understanding and re-purposing of metformin as an anti-cancer/chemo-sensitizing drug in the treatment of breast cancer. It intends to provide a rationale for the use of metformin as a combinatory therapy in a clinical setting.

The Importance of Breast Adipose Tissue in Breast Cancer

Adipose tissue is a complex endocrine organ, with a role in obesity and cancer. Adipose tissue is generally linked to excessive body fat, and it is well known that the female breast is rich in adipose tissue. Hence, one can wonder: what is the role of adipose tissue in the breast and why is it required? Adipose tissue as an organ consists of adipocytes, an extracellular matrix (ECM) and immune cells, with a significant role in the dynamics of breast changes throughout the life span of a female breast from puberty, pregnancy, lactation and involution. In this review, we will discuss the importance of breast adipose tissue in breast development and its involvement in breast changes happening during pregnancy, lactation and involution. We will focus on understanding the biology of breast adipose tissue, with an overview on its involvement in the various steps of breast cancer development and progression. The interaction between the breast adipose tissue surrounding cancer cells and vice-versa modifies the tumor microenvironment in favor of cancer. Understanding this mutual interaction and the role of breast adipose tissue in the tumor microenvironment could potentially raise the possibility of overcoming breast adipose tissue mediated resistance to therapies and finding novel candidates to target breast cancer.

SHISA3, an antagonist of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling, is epigenetically silenced and its ectopic expression suppresses growth in breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is the foremost cause of cancer related deaths in women globally. Currently there is a scarcity of reliable biomarkers for its early stage diagnosis and theranostics monitoring. Altered DNA methylation patterns leading to the silencing of tumor suppressor genes are considered as an important mechanism underlying tumor development and progression in various cancer types, including BC. Very recently, epigenetic silencing of SHISA3, an antagonist of β-catenin, has been reported in various types of tumor. However, the role of SHISA3 in BC has not been investigated yet. Therefore, we aimed at evaluating the contribution of SHISA3 in BC causation by analyzing its expression and methylation levels in BC cell lines (MDA-MB231, MCF-7 and BT-474) and in 103 paired BC tissue samples. The SHISA3 expression and methylation status was determined by qPCR and methylation specific PCR (MSP) respectively. The role of SHISA3 in BC tumorigenesis was evaluated by proliferation and migration assays after ectopic expression of SHISA3. The association between SHISA3 hypermethylation and clinicopathological parameters of BC patients was also studied. The downregulation of SHISA3 expression was found in three BC cell lines used and in all BC tissue samples. However, SHISA3 promoter region was hypermethylated in 61% (63/103) tumorous tissues in comparison to the 18% of their matched normal tissues. The 5-aza-2’-deoxycytidine treatment restored SHISA3 expression by reversing promoter hypermethylation in both MDA-MB231 and MCF-7 cells. Furthermore, ectopic expression of SHISA3 significantly reduced the proliferation and migration ability of these cells. Taken together, our findings for the first time reveal epigenetic silencing and tumor suppressing role of SHISA3 in BC. Henceforth, this study has identified SHISA3 as potentially powerful target for the development of new therapies against BC, as well as novel diagnostic and therapy response monitoring approaches.

Concurrent Wnt pathway component expression in breast and colorectal cancer

Wnt signaling pathway regulates important cell functions such as proliferation and migration and is frequently deregulated in colorectal and breast cancer. Thus, it constitutes an attractive therapeutic target with many drugs being investigated in clinical trials. Eighty-two breast and 102 colorectal carcinomas were analyzed for: relative mRNA expression levels of Wnt pathway components namely Wnt3 ligand, Frizzled 7 receptor and LEF1 transcriptional factor, their concurrent expression patterns and their correlation with clinicopathological features. Regarding breast carcinomas, increased relative mRNA expression levels of WNT3 were found in 54 % of cases whereas decreased relative mRNA expression levels were observed in FZD7 and LEF1 in 82 % and 43 % of cases, respectively. Expression levels of WNT3 were significantly correlated with tumour grade (p = 0.021) in breast cancer. As far as colorectal carcinomas are concerned, increased relative mRNA expression levels of WNT3, FZD7 and LEF1 were found in 60 %, 37 % and 48 % of cases respectively. A statistically significant correlation emerged between LEF1expression levels and pT-category (p = 0.027), suggesting a possible association with tumour aggressiveness in colorectal carcinomas. Statistically significant linear correlations were observed between the expression of WNT3/LEF1 (R = 0.233, p = 0.035) and FZD7/LEF1 (R = 0.359, p = 0.001) in breast carcinomas as well as in colorectal carcinomas (R = 0.536, p < 0.01 and R = 0.210, p = 0.034) respectively. Our results demonstrate a possible clinical significance of Wnt pathway gene expression levels in both tumour types. The distinct expression patterns and simultaneous expression of the investigated genes underscore the complexity of this pathway in breast and colorectal carcinogenesis and highlights the necessity of patient selection with regard to the effectiveness of Wnt pathway inhibitors.

Two Sides of the Same Coin: The Role of Developmental pathways and pluripotency factors in normal mammary stem cells and breast cancer metastasis

Breast cancer initiation and progression are often observed as the result of dysregulation of normal developmental processes and pathways. Studies focused on normal mammary stem/progenitor cell activity have led to an understanding of how breast cancer cells acquire stemness-associated properties including tumor initiation, survival and multi-lineage differentiation into heterogeneous tumors that become difficult to target therapeutically. Importantly, more recent investigations have provided valuable insight into how key developmental regulators can impact multiple phases of metastasis, where they are repurposed to not only promote metastatic phenotypes such as migration, invasion and EMT at the primary site, but also to regulate the survival, initiation and maintenance of metastatic lesions at secondary organs. Herein, we discuss findings that have led to a better understanding of how embryonic and pluripotency factors contribute not only to normal mammary development, but also to metastatic progression. We further examine the therapeutic potential of targeting these developmental pathways, and discuss how a better understanding of compensatory mechanisms, crosstalk between pathways, and novel experimental models could provide critical insight into how we might exploit embryonic and pluripotency regulators to inhibit tumor progression and metastasis.

Diagnostic value of Doppler ultrasound parameters combined with MMP-11 in early breast cancer and benign breast diseases

Diagnostic value of Doppler ultrasound parameters combined with matrix metalloproteinase-11 (MMP-11) in early breast cancer and benign breast diseases were investigated. A total of 72 patients who underwent color Doppler ultrasound examination in Liaocheng Third People's Hospital from March 2015 to August 2018 were collected as research subjects, and the blood of 60 healthy subjects who underwent physical examinations was collected. The expression level of MMP-11 in serum of breast cancer patients was evaluated, and the diagnostic value of color Doppler ultrasound combined with MMP-11 in breast cancer was assessed. The diagnostic results of color Doppler ultrasound and the imaging characteristics of breast cancer patients were recorded. The results of biopsy and ultrasound were compared. The expression level of MMP-11 in serum of breast cancer patients was significantly higher than that of healthy subjects (P<0.05). The AUC of MMP-11 was 0.735, the sensitivity was 66.67%, and the specificity was 86.11%. Among the 72 patients, there were 41 patients diagnosed with breast cancer by serum MMP-11 examination, 38 patients diagnosed by ultrasound examination, 33 patients diagnosed by combined diagnosis, and 30 patients diagnosed by pathology biopsy. The pathological biopsy was used as the gold standard. The diagnostic efficacy of ultrasound combined with mammography examination was significantly better than the other two single examinations (P<0.050). In conclusion, Doppler ultrasound parameters combined with MMP-11 has a high diagnostic accordance rate in the diagnosis of breast cancer. At the same time, different diagnostic methods combined with the clinical manifestations of patients can improve the diagnostic accuracy, which is worthy of providing reference and advice for future clinical practice.

Chinese massage, Tui Na, combined with herbs improves clinical symptoms and regulates sex hormones in patients with mammary gland hyperplasia

To study the effects of Tui Na therapy on patients with mammary gland hyperplasia.A total of 68 female patients with mammary gland hyperplasia were included in this retrospective study from May 2016 to May 2017 and assigned into control group (N = 34) treated with Rupixiao only (a proprietary Chinese medicine) or Tui Na group (N = 34) treated with Tui Na (Chinese massage) combined with Rupixiao. The pain intensity (visual analogous scale, VAS) and serum levels of luteinizing hormone (LH), estradiol (E2), prolactin (PRL), and progesterone (P) were examined before and after the treatment.The efficacies were 94.1% (32/34) in the Tui Na group and 76.5% (26/34) in the control group (P = .04). After treatment, VAS in Tui Na groups was significantly lower than that in control group (2.1 ± 1.1 vs 3.1 ± 1.1, P < .05). After follow-up for five months, the recurrence rates were 12.5% (4/32) in the Tui Na group and 23.1% (6/26) in the control group (P = .01). The levels of all 4 hormones in the Tui Na group increased significantly after treatment. In control group, only LH and E2 levels were significantly increased after treatment.In patients with mammary gland hyperplasia, Tui Na combined with Rupixiao could improve clinical symptoms, regulate sex hormone levels, and decrease the recurrence rate than Rupixiao alone. Our finding suggests that Tui Na can be potentially used for the treatment of mammary gland hyperplasia.

ASPM is a predictor of overall survival and has therapeutic potential in endometrial cancer

BACKGROUND

Endometrial carcinoma (EC) is one of the most common cancers in women, and its pathogenesis is complex. Abnormal spindle microtubule assembly (ASPM) is highly expressed in a variety of cancers and is related to poor clinical prognosis and recurrence. However, the role of ASPM in EC is still unclear. Our study was conducted to investigate the association of ASPM with tumour progression and prognosis in EC.

METHODS

The expression level of ASPM in EC patients was analysed by using the TCGA database and by using immunohistochemistry (IHC) to analyse EC patient samples. The relationship between ASPM expression and clinicopathological variables was analysed by the chi-square test. Survival curves were analysed by Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and log-rank test. Univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses were performed to measure the prognosis of EC. The effects of ASPM on the proliferation, invasion and metastasis of EC cells (HEC-1A and Ishikawa) were analysed by MTT and Transwell assays. The effect of ASPM on the Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway was detected by Western blotting.

RESULTS

ASPM was highly overexpressed in EC. Overexpression of ASPM was related to significantly worse overall survival (P<0.05) in EC patients. Univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses suggested that upregulation of ASPM was related to poor prognosis in EC. Knockdown of ASPM inhibited the proliferation, migration and invasion of EC cells. ASPM knockdown suppressed the Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway, while β-catenin overexpression reversed the effect of shASPM on cell activity.

CONCLUSIONS

ASPM acts as an independent predictor of clinical prognosis and serves as a potential target gene for EC therapy.

BRCA1 represses DNA replication initiation through antagonizing estrogen signaling and maintains genome stability in parallel with WEE1-MCM2 signaling during pregnancy

The mammary gland undergoes fast cell proliferation during early pregnancy, yet the mechanism to ensure genome integrity during this highly proliferative stage is largely unknown. We show that pregnancy triggers replicative stresses leading to genetic instability in mice carrying a mammary specific disruption of breast cancer associated gene-1 (BRCA1). The fast cell proliferation was correlated with enhanced expression of most genes encoding replisomes, which are positively regulated by estrogen/ERα signaling but negatively regulated by BRCA1. Our further analysis revealed two parallel signaling pathways, which are mediated by ATR-CHK1 and WEE1-MCM2 and are responsible for regulating DNA replication checkpoint. Upon DNA damage, BRCA1 deficiency markedly enhances DNA replication initiation and preferably impairs DNA replication checkpoint mediated by ATR and CHK1. Meanwhile, DNA damage also activates WEE1-MCM2 signaling, which inhibits DNA replication initiation and enables BRCA1-deficient cells to avoid further genomic instability. Finally, we demonstrated that overriding this defense by WEE1 inhibition in combination with cisplatin, which causes DNA damage, serves as a promising therapeutic approach for killing BRCA1-deficient cancer cells.

Comparative milk proteome analysis of Kashmiri and Jersey cattle identifies differential expression of key proteins involved in immune system regulation and milk quality

BACKGROUND

Exploration of the bioactive components of bovine milk has gained global interest due to their potential applications in human nutrition and health promotion. Despite advances in proteomics profiling, limited studies have been carried out to fully characterize the bovine milk proteome. This study explored the milk proteome of Jersey and Kashmiri cattle at day 90 of lactation using high-resolution mass spectrometry based quantitative proteomics nano-scale LC-MS/Q-TOF technique. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD017412.

RESULTS

Proteins from whey were fractionated by precipitation into high and low abundant proteins. A total of 81 high-abundant and 99 low-abundant proteins were significantly differentially expressed between Kashmiri and Jersey cattle, clearly differentiating the two breeds at the proteome level. Among the top differentiating proteins, the Kashmiri cattle milk proteome was characterised by increased concentrations of immune-related proteins (apelin, acid glycoprotein, CD14 antigen), neonatal developmental protein (probetacellulin), xenobiotic metabolising enzyme (flavin monooxygenase 3 (FMO3), GLYCAM1 and HSP90AA1 (chaperone) while the Jersey milk proteome presented higher concentrations of enzyme modulators (SERPINA1, RAC1, serine peptidase inhibitor) and hydrolases (LTF, LPL, CYM, PNLIPRP2). Pathway analysis in Kashmiri cattle revealed enrichment of key pathways involved in the regulation of mammary gland development like Wnt signalling pathway, EGF receptor signalling pathway and FGF signalling pathway while a pathway (T-cell activation pathway) associated with immune system regulation was significantly enriched in Jersey cattle. Most importantly, the high-abundant FMO3 enzyme with an observed 17-fold higher expression in Kashmiri cattle milk seems to be a characteristic feature of the breed. The presence of this (FMO3) bioactive peptide/enzyme in Kashmiri cattle could be economically advantageous for milk products from Kashmiri cattle.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this is the first study to provide insights not only into the milk proteome differences between Kashmiri and Jersey cattle but also provides potential directions for application of specific milk proteins from Kashmiri cattle in special milk preparations like infant formula.

Aberrant WNT/CTNNB1 Signaling as a Therapeutic Target in Human Breast Cancer: Weighing the Evidence

WNT signaling is crucial for tissue morphogenesis during development in all multicellular animals. After birth, WNT/CTNNB1 responsive stem cells are responsible for tissue homeostasis in various organs and hyperactive WNT/CTNNB1 signaling is observed in many different human cancers. The first link between WNT signaling and breast cancer was established almost 40 years ago, when Wnt1 was identified as a proto-oncogene capable of driving mammary tumor formation in mice. Since that discovery, there has been a dedicated search for aberrant WNT signaling in human breast cancer. However, much debate and controversy persist regarding the importance of WNT signaling for the initiation, progression or maintenance of different breast cancer subtypes. As the first drugs designed to block functional WNT signaling have entered clinical trials, many questions about the role of aberrant WNT signaling in human breast cancer remain. Here, we discuss three major research gaps in this area. First, we still lack a basic understanding of the function of WNT signaling in normal human breast development and physiology. Second, the overall extent and precise effect of (epi)genetic changes affecting the WNT pathway in different breast cancer subtypes are still unknown. Which underlying molecular and cell biological mechanisms are disrupted as a result also awaits further scrutiny. Third, we survey the current status of targeted therapeutics that are aimed at interfering with the WNT pathway in breast cancer patients and highlight the importance and complexity of selecting the subset of patients that may benefit from treatment.