Dance of The Golgi: Understanding Golgi Dynamics in Cancer Metastasis

Whole-exome sequencing reveals an association of rs112065068 in TGOLN2 gene with distant metastasis of non-small cell lung cancer

Early prediction and prevention of recurring illness is critical for improving the survival rates of patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Previously, we demonstrated that the presence of premalignant epithelial changes in the small bronchi distant to the primary tumor is associated with NSCLC progression: isolated basal cell hyperplasia (iBCH) indicates a high risk of distant metastasis, BCH combined with squamous metaplasia (BCHSM) - a high risk of locoregional recurrence. Here, we aimed to identify germline single nucleotide variants (SNVs) and insertions and deletions (InDels) associated with distant metastasis and locoregional recurrence in cases with iBCH and BCHSM using whole-exome sequencing of 172 NSCLC patients. The rs112065068 of the TGOLN2 gene was identified only in iBCH patients and was associated with a high risk of distant metastasis (P < .001) and worse metastasis-free survival (HR = 4.19 (95 %CI 1.97-8.93); P < .001). This variant was validated in a group of 109 NSCLC patients using real-time PCR and Sanger sequencing analyses. To our knowledge, this study is the first to identify a germline variant associated with NSCLC distant metastasis.

Golgi apparatus targeted therapy in cancer: Are we there yet?

Membrane trafficking within the Golgi apparatus plays a pivotal role in the intracellular transportation of lipids and proteins. Dysregulation of this process can give rise to various pathological manifestations, including cancer. Exploiting Golgi defects, cancer cells capitalise on aberrant membrane trafficking to facilitate signal transduction, proliferation, invasion, immune modulation, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Despite the identification of several molecular signalling pathways associated with Golgi abnormalities, there remains a lack of approved drugs specifically targeting cancer cells through the manipulation of the Golgi apparatus. In the initial section of this comprehensive review, the focus is directed towards delineating the abnormal Golgi genes and proteins implicated in carcinogenesis. Subsequently, a thorough examination is conducted on the impact of these variations on Golgi function, encompassing aspects such as vesicular trafficking, glycosylation, autophagy, oxidative mechanisms, and pH alterations. Lastly, the review provides a current update on promising Golgi apparatus-targeted inhibitors undergoing preclinical and/or clinical trials, offering insights into their potential as therapeutic interventions. Significantly more effort is required to advance these potential inhibitors to benefit patients in clinical settings.

Morphological determination of localization and function of Golgi proteins

In animal cells, the Golgi apparatus serves as the central hub of the endomembrane secretory pathway. It is responsible for the processing, modification, and sorting of proteins and lipids. The unique stacking and ribbon-like architecture of the Golgi apparatus forms the foundation for its precise functionality. Under cellular stress or pathological conditions, the structure of the Golgi and its important glycosylation modification function may change. It is crucial to employ suitable methodologies to study the structure and function of the Golgi apparatus, particularly when assessing the involvement of a target protein in Golgi regulation. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the diverse microscopy techniques used to determine the specific location of the target protein within the Golgi apparatus. Additionally, it outlines methods for assessing changes in the Golgi structure and its glycosylation modification function following the knockout of the target gene.

Functional analysis and validation of oncodrive gene AP3S1 in ovarian cancer through filtering of mutation data from whole-exome sequencing

BACKGROUND

High-grade serous ovarian carcinoma (HGSOC) is the most aggressive and prevalent subtype of ovarian cancer and accounts for a significant portion of ovarian cancer-related deaths worldwide. Despite advancements in cancer treatment, the overall survival rate for HGSOC patients remains low, thus highlighting the urgent need for a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms driving tumorigenesis and for identifying potential therapeutic targets. Whole-exome sequencing (WES) has emerged as a powerful tool for identifying somatic mutations and alterations across the entire exome, thus providing valuable insights into the genetic drivers and molecular pathways underlying cancer development and progression.

METHODS

Via the analysis of whole-exome sequencing results of tumor samples from 90 ovarian cancer patients, we compared the mutational landscape of ovarian cancer patients with that of TCGA patients to identify similarities and differences. The sequencing data were subjected to bioinformatics analysis to explore tumor driver genes and their functional roles. Furthermore, we conducted basic medical experiments to validate the results obtained from the bioinformatics analysis.

RESULTS

Whole-exome sequencing revealed the mutational profile of HGSOC, including BRCA1, BRCA2 and TP53 mutations. AP3S1 emerged as the most weighted tumor driver gene. Further analysis of AP3S1 mutations and expression demonstrated their associations with patient survival and the tumor immune response. AP3S1 knockdown experiments in ovarian cancer cells demonstrated its regulatory role in tumor cell migration and invasion through the TGF-β/SMAD pathway.

CONCLUSION

This comprehensive analysis of somatic mutations in HGSOC provides insight into potential therapeutic targets and molecular pathways for targeted interventions. AP3S1 was identified as being a key player in tumor immunity and prognosis, thus providing new perspectives for personalized treatment strategies. The findings of this study contribute to the understanding of HGSOC pathogenesis and provide a foundation for improved outcomes in patients with this aggressive disease.

Glycoprofiling of proteins as prostate cancer biomarkers: A multinational population study

The glycoprofiling of two proteins, the free form of the prostate-specific antigen (fPSA) and zinc-α-2-glycoprotein (ZA2G), was assessed to determine their suitability as prostate cancer (PCa) biomarkers. The glycoprofiling of proteins was performed by analysing changes in the glycan composition on fPSA and ZA2G using lectins (proteins that recognise glycans, i.e. complex carbohydrates). The specific glycoprofiling of the proteins was performed using magnetic beads (MBs) modified with horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and antibodies that selectively enriched fPSA or ZA2G from human serum samples. Subsequently, the antibody-captured glycoproteins were incubated on lectin-coated ELISA plates. In addition, a novel glycoprotein standard (GPS) was used to normalise the assay. The glycoprofiling of fPSA and ZA2G was performed in human serum samples obtained from men undergoing a prostate biopsy after an elevated serum PSA, and prostate cancer patients with or without prior therapy. The results are presented in the form of an ROC (Receiver Operating Curve). A DCA (Decision Curve Analysis) to evaluate the clinical performance and net benefit of fPSA glycan-based biomarkers was also performed. While the glycoprofiling of ZA2G showed little promise as a potential PCa biomarker, the glycoprofiling of fPSA would appear to have significant clinical potential. Hence, the GIA (Glycobiopsy ImmunoAssay) test integrates the glycoprofiling of fPSA (i.e. two glycan forms of fPSA). The GIA test could be used for early diagnoses of PCa (AUC = 0.83; n = 559 samples) with a potential for use in therapy-monitoring (AUC = 0.90; n = 176 samples). Moreover, the analysis of a subset of serum samples (n = 215) revealed that the GIA test (AUC = 0.81) outperformed the PHI (Prostate Health Index) test (AUC = 0.69) in discriminating between men with prostate cancer and those with benign serum PSA elevation.

Quantification of golgi dispersal and classification using machine learning models

The Golgi body is a critical organelle in eukaryotic cells responsible for processing and modifying proteins and lipids. Under certain conditions, such as stress, disease, or ageing, the Golgi structure alters. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms that regulate Golgi dispersion has significant research contributions to identifying disease. However, there is a lack of tools to quantify the Golgi dispersion datasets. In this paper, we aim to automate the process of quantification of Golgi dispersion and use extracted features to classify dispersed Golgi images from undispersed Golgi images using machine learning models. First, we collected confocal microscopy images of transiently transfected HeLa cells expressing Galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase (GALT)- green fluorescent protein (GFP) to quantify Golgi dispersal and classification. For the quantification, we introduced automated image processing and segmentation by applying mean and Gaussian filters. Then we used Otsu thresholding on preprocessed images and watershed segmentation to refine the segmentation of dispersed Golgi particles. In the case of classification, we extracted features from the Golgi dispersal images and classified them into empty vector (EV) versus CARP1 ring mutant (CARP1 RM) and empty vector (EV) versus CARP1 wildtype (CARP1 WT) classes. Our approach used machine-learning models, including logistic regression, decision tree, random forest, Naive Bayes, k-Nearest Neighbor (KNN), and gradient boosting for dispersed Golgi image classification. The experiment results show that our quantification technique on Golgi dispersal images reached 65% classification accuracy when the system uses a gradient boosting classifier for EV vs. CARP1 WT classification. Furthermore, our approach achieved 65% classification accuracy using a random forest classifier for EV vs. CARP1 RM classification.

Hypoxia-Responsive Golgi-Targeted Prodrug Assembled with Anthracycline for Improved Antitumor and Antimetastasis Efficacy

Tumor metastasis is an intricate multistep process regulated via various proteins and enzymes modified and secreted by swollen Golgi apparatus in tumor cells. Thus, Golgi complex is considered as an important target for the remedy of metastasis. Currently, Golgi targeting technologies are mostly employed in Golgi-specific fluorescent probes for diagnosis, but their applications in therapy are rarely reported. Herein, we proposed a prodrug (INR) that can target and destroy the Golgi apparatus, which consisted of indomethacin (IMC) as the Golgi targeting moiety and retinoic acid (RA), a Golgi disrupting agent. The linker between IMC and RA was designed as a hypoxia-responsive nitroaromatic structure, which ensured the release of the prototype drugs in the hypoxic tumor microenvironment. Furthermore, INR could be assembled with pirarubicin (THP), an anthracycline, to form a carrier-free nanoparticle (NP) by emulsion-solvent evaporation method. A small amount of mPEG2000-DSPE was added to shield the positive charges and improve the stability of the nanoparticle to obtain PEG-modified nanoparticle (PNP). It was proved that INR released the prototype drugs in tumor cells and hypoxia promoted the release. The Golgi destructive effect of RA in INR was amplified owing to the Golgi targeting ability of IMC, and IMC also inhibited the protumor COX-2/PGE2 signaling. Finally, PNP exhibited excellent curative efficacy on 4T1 primary tumor and its pulmonary and hepatic metastasis. The small molecular therapeutic prodrug targeting Golgi apparatus could be adapted to multifarious drug delivery systems and disease models, which expanded the application of Golgi targeting tactics in disease treatment.

Identification of ACBD3 as a new molecular biomarker in pan-cancers through bioinformatic analysis: a preclinical study

BACKGROUND

Acyl-CoA-binding domain-containing 3 (ACBD3) is a multifunctional protein, that plays essential roles in cellular signaling and membrane domain organization. Although the precise roles of ACBD3 in various cancers remain unclear. Thus, we aimed to determine the diverse roles of ACBD3 in pan-cancers.

METHODS

Relevant clinical and RNA-sequencing data for normal tissues and 33 tumors from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, the Human Protein Atlas, and other databases were applied to investigate ACBD3 expression in various cancers. ACBD3-binding and ACBD3-related target genes were obtained from the STRING and GEPIA2 databases. The possible functions of ACBD3-binding genes were explored using Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses. We also applied the diagnostic value and survival prognosis analysis of ACBD3 in pan-cancers using R language. The mutational features of ACBD3 in various TCGA cancers were obtained from the cBioPortal database.

RESULTS

When compared with normal tissues, ACBD3 expression was statistically upregulated in eleven cancers and downregulated in three cancers. ACBD3 expression was remarkably different among various pathological stages of tumors, immune and molecular subtypes of cancers, cancer phosphorylation levels, and immune cell infiltration. The survival of four tumors was correlated with the expression level of ACBD3, including pancreatic adenocarcinoma, adrenocortical carcinoma, sarcoma, and glioma. The high accuracy in diagnosing multiple tumors and its correlation with prognosis indicated that ACBD3 may be a potential biomarker of pan-cancers.

CONCLUSION

According to our pan-cancer analysis, ACBD3 may serve as a remarkable prognostic and diagnostic biomarker of pan-cancers as well as contribute to tumor development. ACBD3 may also provide new directions for cancer treatment targets in the future.

A Golgi-Targeted Platinum Complex Plays a Dual Role in Autophagy Regulation for Highly Efficient Cancer Therapy

Regulating autophagy to control the homeostatic recycling process of cancer cells is a promising anticancer strategy. Golgi apparatus is a substrate of autophagy but the Golgi-autophagy (Golgiphagy) mediated antitumor pathway is rarely reported. Herein, we have developed a novel Golgi-targeted platinum (II) complex Pt3, which is ca. 20 times more cytotoxic to lung carcinoma than cisplatin and can completely eliminate tumors after intratumoral administration in vivo. Its nano-encapsulated system for tail vein administration also features a good anti-tumor effect. Mechanism studies indicate that Pt3 induces substantial Golgi stress, indicated by the fragmentation of Golgi structure, down-regulation of Golgi proteins (GM130, GRASP65/55), loss of Golgi-dependent transport and glycosylation. This triggers Golgiphagy but blocks the subsequent fusion of autophagosomes with lysosomes, that is a dual role in autophagy regulation, resulting in loss of proteostasis and apoptotic cell death. As far as we know, Pt3 is the first Golgi-targeted Pt complex that can trigger Golgi stress-mediated dual-regulation of autophagic flux and autophagy-apoptosis crosstalk for highly efficient cancer therapy.

The Structural Proteins of Membrane Rafts, Caveolins and Flotillins, in Lung Cancer: More Than Just Scaffold Elements

Lung cancer is one of the most frequently diagnosed cancers worldwide. Due to its late diagnosis, it remains the leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Despite it is mostly associated to tobacco smoking, recent data suggested that genetic factors are of the highest importance. In this context, different processes meaningful for the development and progression of lung cancer such endocytosis, protein secretion and signal transduction, are controlled by membrane rafts. These highly ordered membrane domains contain proteins such as caveolins and flotillins, which were traditionally considered scaffold proteins but have currently been given a preponderant role in lung cancer. Here, we summarize current knowledge regarding the involvement of caveolins and flotillins in lung cancer from a molecular point of view.

Functional Materials for Subcellular Targeting Strategies in Cancer Therapy: Progress and Prospects

Neoadjuvant and adjuvant therapies have made significant progress in cancer treatment. However, tumor adjuvant therapy still faces challenges due to the intrinsic heterogeneity of cancer, genomic instability, and the formation of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Functional materials possess unique biological properties such as long circulation times, tumor-specific targeting, and immunomodulation. The combination of functional materials with natural substances and nanotechnology has led to the development of smart biomaterials with multiple functions, high biocompatibilities, and negligible immunogenicities, which can be used for precise cancer treatment. Recently, subcellular structure-targeting functional materials have received particular attention in various biomedical applications including the diagnosis, sensing, and imaging of tumors and drug delivery. Subcellular organelle-targeting materials can precisely accumulate therapeutic agents in organelles, considerably reduce the threshold dosages of therapeutic agents, and minimize drug-related side effects. This review provides a systematic and comprehensive overview of the research progress in subcellular organelle-targeted cancer therapy based on functional nanomaterials. Moreover, it explains the challenges and prospects of subcellular organelle-targeting functional materials in precision oncology. The review will serve as an excellent cutting-edge guide for researchers in the field of subcellular organelle-targeted cancer therapy.

Golgi's Role in the Development of Possible New Therapies in Cancer

The Golgi apparatus is an important organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. It plays a vital role in the processing and sorting of proteins, lipids and other cellular components for delivery to their appropriate destinations within the cell or for secretion outside of the cell. The Golgi complex also plays a role in the regulation of protein trafficking, secretion and post-translational modifications, which are significant in the development and progression of cancer. Abnormalities in this organelle have been observed in various types of cancer, although research into chemotherapies that target the Golgi apparatus is still in its early stages. There are a few promising approaches that are being investigated: (1) Targeting the stimulator of interferon genes protein: The STING pathway senses cytosolic DNA and activates several signaling events. It is regulated by numerous post-translational modifications and relies heavily on vesicular trafficking. Based on some observations which state that a decreased STING expression is present in some cancer cells, agonists for the STING pathway have been developed and are currently being tested in clinical trials, showing encouraging results. (2) Targeting glycosylation: Altered glycosylation, which refers to changes in the carbohydrate molecules that are attached to proteins and lipids in cells, is a common feature of cancer cells, and there are several methods that thwart this process. For example, some inhibitors of glycosylation enzymes have been shown to reduce tumor growth and metastasis in preclinical models of cancer. (3) Targeting Golgi trafficking: The Golgi apparatus is responsible for the sorting and trafficking of proteins within the cell, and disrupting this process may be a potential therapeutic approach for cancer. The unconventional protein secretion is a process that occurs in response to stress and does not require the involvement of the Golgi organelles. P53 is the most frequently altered gene in cancer, dysregulating the normal cellular response to DNA damage. The mutant p53 drives indirectly the upregulation of the Golgi reassembly-stacking protein 55kDa (GRASP55). Through the inhibition of this protein in preclinical models, the reduction of the tumoral growth and metastatic capacity have been obtained successfully. This review supports the hypothesis that the Golgi apparatus may be the target of cytostatic treatment, considering its role in the molecular mechanisms of the neoplastic cells.

In Response to Precision Medicine: Current Subcellular Targeting Strategies for Cancer Therapy

Emerging as a potent anticancer treatment, subcellular targeted cancer therapy has drawn increasing attention, bringing great opportunities for clinical application. Here, two targeting strategies for four main subcellular organelles (mitochondria, lysosome, endoplasmic reticulum, and nucleus), including molecule- and nanomaterial (inorganic nanoparticles, micelles, organic polymers, and others)-based targeted delivery or therapeutic strategies, are summarized. Phototherapy, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, and "all-in-one" combination therapy are among the strategies covered in detail. Such materials are constructed based on the specific properties and relevant mechanisms of organelles, enabling the elimination of tumors by inducing dysfunction in the corresponding organelles or destroying specific structures. The challenges faced by organelle-targeting cancer therapies are also summarized. Looking forward, a paradigm for organelle-targeting therapy with enhanced therapeutic efficacy compared to current clinical approaches is envisioned.

Golgi Stress Response: New Insights into the Pathogenesis and Therapeutic Targets of Human Diseases

The Golgi apparatus modifies and transports secretory and membrane proteins. In some instances, the production of secretory and membrane proteins exceeds the capacity of the Golgi apparatus, including vesicle trafficking and the post-translational modification of macromolecules. These proteins are not modified or delivered appropriately due to insufficiency in the Golgi function. These conditions disturb Golgi homeostasis and induce a cellular condition known as Golgi stress, causing cells to activate the 'Golgi stress response,' which is a homeostatic process to increase the capacity of the Golgi based on cellular requirements. Since the Golgi functions are diverse, several response pathways involving TFE3, HSP47, CREB3, proteoglycan, mucin, MAPK/ETS, and PERK regulate the capacity of each Golgi function separately. Understanding the Golgi stress response is crucial for revealing the mechanisms underlying Golgi dynamics and its effect on human health because many signaling molecules are related to diseases, ranging from viral infections to fatal neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, it is valuable to summarize and investigate the mechanisms underlying Golgi stress response in disease pathogenesis, as they may contribute to developing novel therapeutic strategies. In this review, we investigate the perturbations and stress signaling of the Golgi, as well as the therapeutic potentials of new strategies for treating Golgi stress-associated diseases.

EMT-activated secretory and endocytic vesicular trafficking programs underlie a vulnerability to PI4K2A antagonism in lung cancer

Hypersecretory malignant cells underlie therapeutic resistance, metastasis, and poor clinical outcomes. However, the molecular basis for malignant hypersecretion remains obscure. Here, we showed that epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) initiates exocytic and endocytic vesicular trafficking programs in lung cancer. The EMT-activating transcription factor zinc finger E-box-binding homeobox 1 (ZEB1) executed a PI4KIIIβ-to-PI4KIIα (PI4K2A) dependency switch that drove PI4P synthesis in the Golgi and endosomes. EMT enhanced the vulnerability of lung cancer cells to PI4K2A small-molecule antagonists. PI4K2A formed a MYOIIA-containing protein complex that facilitated secretory vesicle biogenesis in the Golgi, thereby establishing a hypersecretory state involving osteopontin (SPP1) and other prometastatic ligands. In the endosomal compartment, PI4K2A accelerated recycling of SPP1 receptors to complete an SPP1-dependent autocrine loop and interacted with HSP90 to prevent lysosomal degradation of AXL receptor tyrosine kinase, a driver of cell migration. These results show that EMT coordinates exocytic and endocytic vesicular trafficking to establish a therapeutically actionable hypersecretory state that drives lung cancer progression.

Adaptively Integrative Association between Multivariate Phenotypes and Transcriptomic Data for Complex Diseases

Phenotype–gene association studies can uncover disease mechanisms for translational research. Association with multiple phenotypes or clinical variables in complex diseases has the advantage of increasing statistical power and offering a holistic view. Existing multi-variate association methods mostly focus on SNP-based genetic associations. In this paper, we extend and evaluate two adaptive Fisher’s methods, namely AFp and AFz, from the p-value combination perspective for phenotype–mRNA association analysis. The proposed method effectively aggregates heterogeneous phenotype–gene effects, allows association with different data types of phenotypes, and performs the selection of the associated phenotypes. Variability indices of the phenotype–gene effect selection are calculated by bootstrap analysis, and the resulting co-membership matrix identifies gene modules clustered by phenotype–gene effect. Extensive simulations demonstrate the superior performance of AFp compared to existing methods in terms of type I error control, statistical power and biological interpretation. Finally, the method is separately applied to three sets of transcriptomic and clinical datasets from lung disease, breast cancer, and brain aging and generates intriguing biological findings.

Cascade Delivery to Golgi Apparatus and On-Site Formation of Subcellular Drug Reservoir for Cancer Metastasis Suppression

As the foremost cause of cancer-related death, metastasis consists of three steps: invasion, circulation, and colonization. Only targeting one single phase of the metastasis cascade may be insufficient since there are many alternative routes for tumor cells to disseminate. Here, to target the whole cascade of metastasis, hybrid erythrocyte and tumor cell membrane-coated nanoparticle (Hyb-NP) is designed with dual functions of increasing circulation time and recognizing primary, circulating, and colonized tumors. After loading with monensin, a recently reported metastasis inhibitor, the delivery system profoundly reduces spontaneous metastasis in an orthotopic breast cancer model. Underlying mechanism studies reveal that Hyb-NP can deliver monensin to its action site in the Golgi apparatus, and in return, monensin can block the exocytosis of Hyb-NP from the Golgi apparatus, forming a reservoir-like subcellular structure. Notably, the Golgi apparatus reservoir displays three vital functions for suppressing metastasis initialization, including enhanced subcellular drug retention, metastasis-related cytokine release inhibition, and directional migration inhibition. Collectively, based on metastasis cascade targeting at the tissue level, further formation of the Golgi apparatus drug reservoir at the subcellular level provides a potential therapeutic strategy for cancer metastasis suppression.

Impad1 and Syt11 work in an epistatic pathway that regulates EMT-mediated vesicular trafficking to drive lung cancer invasion and metastasis

Lung cancer is a highly aggressive and metastatic disease responsible for approximately 25% of all cancer-related deaths in the United States. Using high-throughput in vitro and in vivo screens, we have previously established Impad1 as a driver of lung cancer invasion and metastasis. Here we elucidate that Impad1 is a direct target of the epithelial microRNAs (miRNAs) miR-200 and miR∼96 and is de-repressed during epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT); thus, we establish a mode of regulation of the protein. Impad1 modulates Golgi apparatus morphology and vesicular trafficking through its interaction with a trafficking protein, Syt11. These changes in Golgi apparatus dynamics alter the extracellular matrix and the tumor microenvironment (TME) to promote invasion and metastasis. Inhibiting Impad1 or Syt11 disrupts the cancer cell secretome, regulates the TME, and reverses the invasive or metastatic phenotype. This work identifies Impad1 as a regulator of EMT and secretome-mediated changes during lung cancer progression.