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Polman EMN, Seijmonsbergen AC, Versteegh H, Kissling WD. Global geodiversity components are not equally represented in UNESCO Global Geoparks. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2024; 382:20230054. [PMID: 38342215 PMCID: PMC10859229 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2023.0054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/13/2024]
Abstract
The aim of UNESCO Global Geoparks (UGGs) is to protect globally significant geoheritage and geodiversity, but quantitative evidence on the global representativeness of geodiversity components (i.e. geology, soils, geomorphology and hydrology) in these geoparks is in short supply. Here, we provide a first assessment by deriving a global map of geodiversity to test whether the presence of geodiversity components in UGGs is representative for the global availability and distribution of geodiversity. Using openly accessible global datasets and a newly developed workflow, we have calculated metrics for each geodiversity component and a global geodiversity index; we then quantified whether UGGs represent global geodiversity and then compared their components to a randomized spatial distribution of geoparks. Our results show that lithological and topographical diversity are more represented in UGGs than outside these sites, while soil type and hydrological diversity are not significantly different. Furthermore, individual soil types and lithological classes are under-represented and unevenly distributed in Asian and European UGGs. This is probably caused by the concentration of geoparks in Asian and European mountains. To better conserve geodiversity, we suggest an initiative to consider the protection and representation of all geodiversity components in their global context. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma M. N. Polman
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, PO Box 94240, 1090GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Arie C. Seijmonsbergen
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, PO Box 94240, 1090GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hannes Versteegh
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, PO Box 94240, 1090GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - W. Daniel Kissling
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, PO Box 94240, 1090GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Schrodt F, Vernham G, Bailey J, Field R, Gordon JE, Gray M, Hjort J, Hoorn C, Hunter Jr. ML, Larwood J, Lausch A, Monge-Ganuzas M, Miller S, van Ree D, Seijmonsbergen AC, Zarnetske PL, Daniel Kissling W. The status and future of essential geodiversity variables. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2024; 382:20230052. [PMID: 38342208 PMCID: PMC10859226 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2023.0052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/13/2024]
Abstract
Rapid environmental change, natural resource overconsumption and increasing concerns about ecological sustainability have led to the development of 'Essential Variables' (EVs). EVs are harmonized data products to inform policy and to enable effective management of natural resources by monitoring global changes. Recent years have seen the instigation of new EVs beyond those established for climate, oceans and biodiversity (ECVs, EOVs and EBVs), including Essential Geodiversity Variables (EGVs). EGVs aim to consistently quantify and monitor heterogeneity of Earth-surface and subsurface abiotic features, including geology, geomorphology, hydrology and pedology. Here we assess the status and future development of EGVs to better incorporate geodiversity into policy and sustainable management of natural resources. Getting EGVs operational requires better consensus on defining geodiversity, investments into a governance structure and open platform for curating the development of EGVs, advances in harmonizing in situ measurements and linking heterogeneous databases, and development of open and accessible computational workflows for global digital mapping using machine-learning techniques. Cross-disciplinary collaboration and partnerships with governmental and private organizations are needed to ensure the successful development and uptake of EGVs across science and policy. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Schrodt
- School of Geography, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Grant Vernham
- School of Geography, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Joseph Bailey
- Department of Biology, Anglia Ruskin University - Cambridge Campus, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire CB1 1PT, UK
| | - Richard Field
- School of Geography, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - John E. Gordon
- School of Geography and Sustainable Development, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY169AL, UK
| | - Murray Gray
- Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK
| | - Jan Hjort
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, Oulu 90570, Finland
| | - Carina Hoorn
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1000 GG, The Netherlands
| | - Malcom L. Hunter Jr.
- Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Conservation Biology, University of Maine, Maine, USA
| | - Jonathan Larwood
- Strategy and Governance, Natural England, Peterborough, Cambridgeshire PE2 8YY, UK
| | - Angela Lausch
- Computational Landscape Ecology, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research – UFZ, Leipzig, Saxony 04318, Germany
| | - Manu Monge-Ganuzas
- Geoheritage Commission, Spanish Geological Society, Busturia, Biscay 48350, Spain
| | - Stephanie Miller
- School of Biology and Ecology; Mitchell Center for Sustainability Solutions, The University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469-5751, USA
| | - Derk van Ree
- Geo-engineering, Deltares, Delft 2600 MH, The Netherlands
- Environmental Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Faculteit der Betawetenschappen, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Arie Christoffel Seijmonsbergen
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Noord-Holland 1090 GE, The Netherlands
| | - Phoebe L. Zarnetske
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1312, USA
| | - W. Daniel Kissling
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Noord-Holland 1090 GE, The Netherlands
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Hjort J, Seijmonsbergen AC, Kemppinen J, Tukiainen H, Maliniemi T, Gordon JE, Alahuhta J, Gray M. Towards a taxonomy of geodiversity. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2024; 382:20230060. [PMID: 38342205 PMCID: PMC10859227 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2023.0060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/13/2024]
Abstract
Geodiversity is a topical concept in earth and environmental sciences. Geodiversity information is needed to conserve nature, use ecosystem services and achieve sustainable development goals. Despite the increasing demand for geodiversity data, there exists no comprehensive system for categorizing geodiversity. Here, we present a hierarchically structured taxonomy that is potentially applicable in mapping and quantifying geodiversity across different regions, environments and scales. In this taxonomy, the main components of geodiversity are geology, geomorphology, hydrology and pedology. We propose a six-level hierarchical system where the components of geodiversity are classified at progressively lower taxonomic levels based on their genesis, physical-chemical properties and morphology. This comprehensive taxonomy can be used to compile geodiversity information for scientific research and various applications of value to society and nature conservation. Ultimately, this hierarchical system is the first step towards developing a global geodiversity taxonomy. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Hjort
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, Pentti Kaiteran katu 1, 90570 Oulu, Finland
| | - Arie C. Seijmonsbergen
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, PO Box 94240, 1090GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Julia Kemppinen
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, Pentti Kaiteran katu 1, 90570 Oulu, Finland
| | - Helena Tukiainen
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, Pentti Kaiteran katu 1, 90570 Oulu, Finland
| | - Tuija Maliniemi
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, Pentti Kaiteran katu 1, 90570 Oulu, Finland
| | - John E. Gordon
- School of Geography and Sustainable Development,University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9AL, UK
| | - Janne Alahuhta
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, Pentti Kaiteran katu 1, 90570 Oulu, Finland
| | - Murray Gray
- School of Geography, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK
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Toivanen M, Maliniemi T, Hjort J, Salminen H, Ala-Hulkko T, Kemppinen J, Karjalainen O, Poturalska A, Kiilunen P, Snåre H, Leppiniemi O, Makopoulou E, Alahuhta J, Tukiainen H. Geodiversity data for Europe. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2024; 382:20230173. [PMID: 38342206 PMCID: PMC10859234 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2023.0173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/13/2024]
Abstract
Geodiversity is an essential part of nature's diversity. However, geodiversity is insufficiently understood in terms of its spatial distribution and its relationship to biodiversity over large spatial extents. Here, we present European geodiversity data at resolutions of 1 km and 10 km. We assess terrestrial geodiversity quantitatively as a richness variable (georichness) using a commonly employed grid-based approach. The data incorporate aspects of geological, pedological, geomorphological and hydrological diversity, which are also available as separate richness variables. To evaluate the data, we correlated European georichness with empirically tested national georichness data from Finland, revealing a positive correlation at both 1 km (rp = 0.37, p < 0.001) and 10 km (rp = 0.59, p < 0.001) resolutions. We also demonstrate potential uses of the European data by correlating georichness with vascular plant species richness in two contrasting example areas: Finland and Switzerland. The positive correlations between georichness and species richness in Finland (rp = 0.34, p < 0.001) and Switzerland (rp = 0.26, p < 0.001) further support the use of our data in geodiversity-biodiversity research. Moreover, there is great potential beyond geodiversity-biodiversity questions, as the data can be exploited across different regions, ecosystems and scales. These geodiversity data provide an insight on abiotic diversity in Europe and establish a quantitative large-scale geodiversity assessment method applicable worldwide. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Toivanen
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - T. Maliniemi
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - J. Hjort
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - H. Salminen
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - T. Ala-Hulkko
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
- Kerttu Saalasti Institute, University of Oulu, Oulu 90014, Finland
| | - J. Kemppinen
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - O. Karjalainen
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - A. Poturalska
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - P. Kiilunen
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - H. Snåre
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
- Finnish Environment Institute, Nature Solutions, Paavo Havaksen Tie 3 Oulu, 90570, Finland
| | - O. Leppiniemi
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - E. Makopoulou
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - J. Alahuhta
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - H. Tukiainen
- Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
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Gray M. Case studies associated with the 10 major geodiversity-related topics. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2024; 382:20230055. [PMID: 38342216 PMCID: PMC10859230 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2023.0055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/13/2024]
Abstract
This paper outlines the 10 major topics related to geodiversity that have emerged since the concept was first introduced in 1993, 30 years ago. After a short introduction, each of the 10 topics is then illustrated by a relevant case study. The 10 topics (italics) and their case studies (bold) are as follows: 1. Celebrating, International Geodiversity Day; 2. Measurement/Assessment, Potential role of remote sensing; 3. Natural Capital and Geosystem Services, Coastal geosystem services; 4. Biodiversity, Mangue de Pedra, Brazil; 5. Geomaterials, The circular economy; 6. Geotourism, World's top geotourism sites?; 7. Geoheritage, Landscape restoration; 8. National Geoconservation, Trump golf course and an SSSI, Scotland; 9. World Heritage Sites and Global Geoparks, Azores Global Geopark, Portugal; 10. Sustainability, Xitle Volcano, Mexico City. It is concluded that, given the way in which geodiversity has developed as a concept, leading to new insights and avenues of research and advancing our understanding of the world since its first use, it clearly now constitutes a significant, geoscientific paradigm. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murray Gray
- School of Geography, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK
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Mallinis G, Domakinis C, Kokkoris IP, Stefanidis S, Dimopoulos P, Mitsopoulos I. MAES implementation in Greece: Geodiversity. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 342:118324. [PMID: 37311342 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The present study aims to support the Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services (MAES) implementation in Greece, by synthesizing an indicator that could be used for abiotic attribute assessments and specifically for geodiversity. Such an indicator can be used not only for reporting obligations under EU initiatives but also for identifying "conservation hotspots". Such areas, characterized by rich geodiversity, are important for supporting biodiversity and other ecosystem services. In addition, identification and mapping of threats to those areas, due to natural or anthropogenic processes, can be used for the introduction or reformation of protective environmental legislation. The geodiversity indicator has been compiled using geological, geomorphological, climatic, pedological and hydrological data layers, while threats to geodiversity have been produced by integrating the sub-indices of erosion, protection level, land degradation, mineral and/or ore extraction activity, and the concentration of wildfire ignition sites. Finally, a bivariate map highlights geodiversity "hotspots" in Greece, which were found to correspond in most cases with locations of rich geodiversity and poor protection from adverse natural or human induced processes, mainly due to the lack of protective legislation. The study's outcomes provide a baseline for scientifically informed decisions for conservation, management and spatial planning, while simultaneously complying with EU and national legislation and strategies for nature conservation and integrated development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgos Mallinis
- Laboratory of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (PERS Lab), School of Rural and Surveying Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124, Thessaloniki, Greece.
| | - Christos Domakinis
- Laboratory of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (PERS Lab), School of Rural and Surveying Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124, Thessaloniki, Greece; Department of Environmental and Physical Geography, Greece Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124, Thessaloniki, Greece.
| | - Ioannis P Kokkoris
- Laboratory of Botany, Department of Biology, University of Patras, GR-26504, Patras, Greece.
| | - Stefanos Stefanidis
- Laboratory of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (PERS Lab), School of Rural and Surveying Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124, Thessaloniki, Greece.
| | - Panayotis Dimopoulos
- Laboratory of Botany, Department of Biology, University of Patras, GR-26504, Patras, Greece.
| | - Ioannis Mitsopoulos
- Natural Environment and Climate Change Agency (N.E.C.C.A.), Ministry of Environment and Energy (MEEN), GR-13677, Athens, Greece.
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Geodiversity Action Plans as a Tool for Developing Sustainable Tourism and Environmental Education. SUSTAINABILITY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/su14106043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
A complex approach to geodiversity and landscape in order to foster geoconservation and develop geotourism and geoeducation is usually more effective than isolated protection and promotion of geoheritage sites without wider context. A Geodiversity Action Plan (GAP) represents a reasonable tool for how to follow these goals in cooperation with local stakeholders. This specific document is not focused only on an inventory of sites of Earth science interest in an area, but encompasses all geodiversity (geological, geomorphological, soil and hydrological features, processes, systems and relationships). As geoconservation often goes hand in hand with education, sustainable tourism and promotion, the GAP includes practical proposals for management and rational use of the area’s geodiversity and geoheritage. This complex approach is needed as it provides a complement to the site-oriented protection or management and, moreover, it can be perceived as coherent with a geoethical approach. The paper presents a case study from Moravian-Slovak border (a central part of Bílé Karpaty/Biele Karpaty Mountains) where the proposal for GAP (including inventory, assessment and management measures) was elaborated together with local authorities, schools and other stakeholders.
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Wallis CIB, Tiede YC, Beck E, Böhning-Gaese K, Brandl R, Donoso DA, Espinosa CI, Fries A, Homeier J, Inclan D, Leuschner C, Maraun M, Mikolajewski K, Neuschulz EL, Scheu S, Schleuning M, Suárez JP, Tinoco BA, Farwig N, Bendix J. Biodiversity and ecosystem functions depend on environmental conditions and resources rather than the geodiversity of a tropical biodiversity hotspot. Sci Rep 2021; 11:24530. [PMID: 34972835 PMCID: PMC8720099 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-03488-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractBiodiversity and ecosystem functions are highly threatened by global change. It has been proposed that geodiversity can be used as an easy-to-measure surrogate of biodiversity to guide conservation management. However, so far, there is mixed evidence to what extent geodiversity can predict biodiversity and ecosystem functions at the regional scale relevant for conservation planning. Here, we analyse how geodiversity computed as a compound index is suited to predict the diversity of four taxa and associated ecosystem functions in a tropical mountain hotspot of biodiversity and compare the results with the predictive power of environmental conditions and resources (climate, habitat, soil). We show that combinations of these environmental variables better explain species diversity and ecosystem functions than a geodiversity index and identified climate variables as more important predictors than habitat and soil variables, although the best predictors differ between taxa and functions. We conclude that a compound geodiversity index cannot be used as a single surrogate predictor for species diversity and ecosystem functions in tropical mountain rain forest ecosystems and is thus little suited to facilitate conservation management at the regional scale. Instead, both the selection and the combination of environmental variables are essential to guide conservation efforts to safeguard biodiversity and ecosystem functions.
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Bianco L. Architectural ruins: geoculture of the anatomy of buildings as illustrated by Casa Ippolito, Malta. HERITAGE SCIENCE 2021; 9:27. [PMID: 33680469 PMCID: PMC7921613 DOI: 10.1186/s40494-021-00500-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Ruins are a statement on the building materials used and the construction method employed. Casa Ippolito, now in ruins, is typical of 17th-century Maltese aristocratic country residences. It represents an illustration of secondary or anthropogenic geodiversity. This paper scrutinises these ruins as a primary source in reconstructing the building's architecture. The methodology involved on-site geographical surveying, including visual inspection and non-invasive tests, a geological survey of the local lithostratigraphy, and examination of notarial deeds and secondary sources to support findings about the building's history as read from its ruins. An unmanned aerial vehicle was used to digitally record the parlous state of the architectural structure and karsten tubes were used to quantify the surface porosity of the limestone. The results are expressed from four perspectives. The anatomy of Casa Ippolito, as revealed in its ruins, provides a cross-section of its building history and shows two distinct phases in its construction. The tissue of Casa Ippolito-the building elements and materials-speaks of the knowledge of raw materials and their properties among the builders who worked on both phases. The architectural history of Casa Ippolito reveals how it supported its inhabitants' wellbeing in terms of shelter, water and food. Finally, the ruins in their present state bring to the fore the site's potential for cultural tourism. This case study aims to show that such ruins are not just geocultural remains of historical built fabric. They are open wounds in the built structure; they underpin the anatomy of the building and support insights into its former dynamics. Ruins offer an essay in material culture and building physics. Architectural ruins of masonry structures are anthropogenic discourse rendered in stone which facilitate not only the reconstruction of spaces but also places for human users; they are a statement on the wellbeing of humanity throughout history.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lino Bianco
- Faculty of the Built Environment, University of Malta, Msida, 2080 Malta
- Faculty of Architecture, University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, 1 Hristo Smirnenski Blvd, Sofia, 1164 Bulgaria
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Mountains as a Global Heritage: Arguments for Conserving the Natural Diversity of Mountain Regions. HERITAGE 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/heritage3020012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This concise review posits the urgent need for conserving the natural diversity of mountain environments by envisioning mountains as a global natural heritage. Mountains are recognized as cradles of biodiversity and for their important ecosystem services. Mountains also constitute the second most popular outdoor destination category at the global level after islands and beaches. However, in the current age of accelerating global environmental change, mountain systems face unprecedented change in their ecological characteristics, and consequent effects will extend to the millions who depend directly on ecosystem services from mountains. Moreover, growing tourism is putting fragile mountain ecosystems under increasing stress. This situation requires scientists and mountain area management stakeholders to come together in order to protect mountains as a global heritage. By underlining the salient natural diversity characteristics of mountains and their relevance for understanding global environmental change, this critical review argues that it is important to appreciate both biotic and abiotic diversity features of mountains in order to create a notion of mountains as a shared heritage for humanity. Accordingly, the development of soft infrastructure that can communicate the essence of mountain destinations and a committed network of scientists and tourism scholars working together at the global level are required for safeguarding this shared heritage.
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