Evaluating the Environmental Impacts of Personal Protective Equipment Use by the General Population during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Case Study of Lombardy (Northern Italy)

Temporal trends in personal protective equipment (PPE) debris during the COVID-19 pandemic in Çanakkale (Turkey)

This study examines trends in PPE (masks, gloves) and disinfecting wipes over three years of the pandemic. The densities of discarded masks, wet wipes, and gloves (personal protective equipment: PPE), were quantified on the streets of Canakkale, Turkey during similar time periods in 2020, 2021 and 2022. Geotagged images of PPE on the streets and sidewalks were documented with a smartphone, while the track of an observer was recorded using a fitness tracker app along a 7.777 km long survey route in the city center, parallel to the Dardanelles Strait. A total of 18 surveys were conducted over three years, and the survey route was subdivided into three zones based on utilization patterns: pedestrian zone, traffic zone and a recreational park zone. The combined densities of all types of PPE density were high in 2020, lower in 2021 and highest in 2022. The within year trend showed an increase over the three study years. The average density of gloves declined from an initially high level in 2020, when the SARS-CoV-2 virus was thought to be transmitted by contact, to near zero in 2021 and to zero in 2022. Densities of wipes were similar in 2020 and 2021 and higher in 2022. Masks were initially difficult to procure in 2020, and their densities progressively increased during that year reaching a plateau in 2021 with similar densities in 2022. PPE densities were significantly lower in the pedestrian route relative to the traffic and park routes, which were not different from each other. The partial curfews implemented by the Turkish government and the effects of prevention measures taken on the PPE concentration in the streets are discussed along with the importance of waste management practices.

Selection of the optimal extraction protocol to investigate the interaction between trace elements and environmental plastic

The interaction between environmental plastic and trace elements is an issue of concern. Understanding their interaction mechanisms is key to evaluate the potential threats for the environment. To this regard, consolidating confidence in extraction protocols can help in understanding the amount of different species present on plastic surface, as well as the potential mobility of trace elements present inside the plastic matrix (e.g., additives). Here we tested the efficacy of different reagents to mimic the elemental phases bonded to meso- and microplastic in the environment, in relation to the grade of ageing and the polymer composition. Results showed that a relatively high portion of trace elements is bonded in a weak phase and that other phases abundant in other matrices (e.g., oxides and bonded to organic matter) are only present to a limited degree in the plastic samples. The comparison of different sample types highlighted the important role of plastic ageing in governing interactions with trace elements, while the polymer composition has a limited influence on this process. Finally, the future steps toward a tailored extraction scheme for environmental plastic are proposed.

Personal protective equipment and micro-nano plastics: A review of an unavoidable interrelation for a global well-being hazard

The usage and the demand for personal protective equipments (PPEs) for our day-to-day survival in this pandemic period of COVID-19 have seen a steep rise which has consequently led to improper disposal and littering. Fragmentation of these PPE units has eventually given way to micro-nano plastics (MNPs) emission in the various environmental matrices and exposure of living organisms to these MNPs has proven to be severely toxic. Numerous factors contribute to the toxicity imparted by these MNPs that mainly include their shape, size, functional groups and their chemical diversity. Even though multiple studies on the impacts of MNPs toxicity are available for other organisms, human cell line studies for various plastic polymers, other than the most common ones namely polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS) and polypropylene (PP), are still at their nascent stage and need to be explored more. In this article, we cover a concise review of the literature on the impact of these MNPs in biotic and human systems focusing on the constituents of the PPE units and the additives that are essentially used for their manufacturing. This review will subsequently identify the need to gather scientific evidence at the smaller level to help combat this microplastic pollution and induce a more in-depth understanding of its adverse effect on our existence.

Physicochemical and biological ageing processes of (micro)plastics in the environment: a multi-tiered study on polyethylene

Pollution by plastic and microplastic impacts the environment globally. Knowledge on the ageing mechanisms of plastics in natural settings is needed to understand their environmental fate and their reactivity in the ecosystems. Accordingly, the study of ageing processes is gaining focus in the context of the environmental sciences. However, laboratory-based experimental research has typically assessed individual ageing processes, limiting environmental applicability. In this study, we propose a multi-tiered approach to study the environmental ageing of polyethylene plastic fragments focusing on the combined assessment of physical and biological processes in sequence. The ageing protocol included ultraviolet irradiation in air and in a range of water solutions, followed by a biofouling test. Changes in surface characteristics were assessed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and water contact angle. UV radiation both in air and water caused a significant increase in the density of oxidized groups (i.e., hydroxyl and carbonyl) on the plastic surface, whereby water solution chemistry influenced the process both by modulating surface oxidation and morphology. Biofouling, too, was a strong determinant of surface alterations, regardless of the prior irradiation treatments. All biofouled samples present (i) specific infrared bands of new surface functional groups (e.g., amides and polysaccharides), (ii) a further increase in hydroxyl and carbonyl groups, (iii) the diffuse presence of algal biofilm on the plastic surface, and (iv) a significant decrease in surface hydrophobicity. This suggests that biological-driven alterations are not affected by the level of physicochemical ageing and may represent, in real settings, the main driver of alteration of both weathered and pristine plastics. This work highlights the potentially pivotal role of biofouling as the main process of plastic ageing, providing useful technical insights for future experimental works. These results also confirm that a multi-tiered laboratory approach permits a realistic simulation of plastic environmental ageing in controlled conditions.

Prospects of TiO2-based photocatalytic degradation of microplastic leachates related disposable facemask, a major COVID-19 waste

COVID-19 is one of the serious catastrophes that have a substantial influence on human health and the environment. Diverse preventive actions were implemented globally to limit its spread and transmission. Personnel protective equipment (PPE) was an important part of these control approaches. But unfortunately, these types of PPE mainly comprise plastics, which sparked challenges in the management of plastic waste. Disposable face masks (DFM) are one of the efficient strategies used across the world to ward off disease transmission. DFMs can contribute to micro and nano plastic pollution as the plastic present in the mask may degrade when exposed to certain environmental conditions. Microplastics (MPs) can enter the food chain and devastate human health. Recognizing the possible environmental risks associated with the inappropriate disposal of masks, it is crucial to avert it from becoming the next plastic crisis. To address this environmental threat, titanium dioxide (TiO2)-based photocatalytic degradation (PCD) of MPs is one of the promising approaches. TiO2-based photocatalysts exhibit excellent plastic degradation potential due to their outstanding photocatalytic ability, cost efficiency, chemical, and thermal stability. In this review, we have discussed the reports on COVID-19 waste generation, the limitation of current waste management techniques, and the environmental impact of MPs leachates from DFMs. Mainly, the prominence of TiO2 in the PCD and the applications of TiO2-based photocatalysts in MPs degradation are the prime highlights of this review. Additionally, various synthesis methods to enhance the photocatalytic performance of TiO2 and the mechanism of PCD are also discussed. Furthermore, current challenges and the future research perspective on the improvement of this approach have been proposed.

Mobilizing COVID-19 level public health interventions for climate breakdown is necessary

The COVID-19 pandemic has proven that extraordinary public health measures can pivot every aspect of society. Norms, politics, economics, and business practices rapidly responded to coordinated simultaneous policies worldwide. This begs the question of why such advancements have not yet been similarly executed to reduce the short- and long-term morbidity and mortality due to environmental destruction and climate change. This article reviews various reasons explaining the discrepancy between the policies of these two health threats, using a terror management theory lens. Exploring how anthropogenic climate change potentiated the contagion and outcomes of COVID-19, the environmental determinants of health deserve increased attention in public discourse. The industry-driven response to COVID-19 also has exacerbated preexisting health inequalities and vulnerabilities, suggesting that a just transition for climate change must not repeat some of the same mistakes taken in global pandemic measures. Finally, addressing emergency health harms in ways that create increased environmental health harms is deemed iatrogenic, displacing rather than truly treating disease. Thus, a planetary health model focused on multisolving health issues is recommended for the basis of addressing COVID-19 and other health disasters.

Suspect screening of wastewaters to trace anti-COVID-19 drugs: Potential adverse effects on aquatic environment

During the first period of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the lack of specific therapeutic treatments led to the provisional use of a number of drugs, with a continuous review of health protocols when new scientific evidence emerged. The management of this emergency sanitary situation could not take care of the possible indirect adverse effects on the environment, such as the release of a large amount of pharmaceuticals from wastewater treatment plants. The massive use of drugs, which were never used so widely until then, implied new risks for the aquatic environment. In this study, a suspect screening approach using Liquid Chromatography-High Resolution Mass Spectrometry techniques, allowed us to survey the presence of pharmaceuticals used for COVID-19 treatment in three WWTPs of Lombardy region, where the first European cluster of SARS-CoV-2 cases was detected. Starting from a list of sixty-three suspect compounds used against COVID-19 (including some metabolites and transformation products), six compounds were fully identified and monitored together with other target analytes, mainly pharmaceuticals of common use. A monthly monitoring campaign was conducted in a WWTP from April to December 2020 and the temporal trends of some anti-COVID-19 drugs were positively correlated with those of COVID-19 cases and deaths. The comparison of the average emission loads among the three WWTPs evidenced that the highest loads of hydroxychloroquine, azithromycin and ciprofloxacin were measured in the WWTP which received the sewages from a hospital specializing in the treatment of COVID-19 patients. The monitoring of the receiving water bodies evidenced the presence of eight compounds of high ecological concern, whose risk was assessed in terms of toxicity and the possibility of inducing antibiotic and viral resistance. The results clearly showed that the enhanced, but not completely justified, use of ciprofloxacin and azithromycin represented a risk for antibiotic resistance in the aquatic ecosystems.

What Are Lake Beaches Made of? An Assessment of Plastic Beach Litter on the Shores of Como Bay (Italy)

Plastic waste dispersion is a well-recognized environmental threat, despite continuous efforts towards improving waste disposal management over the last few decades. Plastic litter is known to strongly impact upon water bodies and shorelines, affecting the health of ecosystems and impacting upon the aesthetic value of sites. Moreover, plastic waste that is abandoned on beaches contributes towards different degradation processes that potentially lead to the formation of secondary microplastics (MPs), with likely cascade effects upon the whole ecosystem. In this view, this study aims to characterize the plastic beach litter found on the shores of the western basin of Como Lake (Italy) to better understand the origin of MPs in littoral sediments, including the recognition of object typologies and the chemical characterization of polymers using Fourier-transformed infrared analysis (FTIR). The results highlighted that the most abundant polymers on beaches are polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE), representing 73% of the collected polymers. This confirms that floating, low-density polymers are more likely to accumulate on beaches. Moreover, almost 66% of litter is represented by commonly used manufactured items (disposable objects, packaging, and everyday items). This evidence, combined with the analysis of the main environmental features of the sampling sites (the main winds, distance to urban areas, and the presence of tributaries) indicate that abundance of beached litter is mainly linked to beach accessibility and the local winds. These results highlight that multiple factors affect the environmental fate of plastic litter and give insights into the assessment of secondary microplastics in beach sediments.

Microplastics waste in environment: A perspective on recycling issues from PPE kits and face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the extensive use of face masks and protective personal equipment (PPE) kits has led to increasing degree of microplastic pollution (MP) because they are typically discarded into the seas, rivers, streets, and other parts of the environment. Currently, microplastic (MP) pollution has a negative impact on the environment because of high-level fragmentation. Typically, MP pollution can be detected by various techniques, such as microscopic analysis, density separation, and Fourier transform infrared spectrometry. However, there are limited studies on disposable face masks and PPE kits. A wide range of marine species ingest MPs in the form of fibers and fragments, which directly affect the environment and human health; thus, more research and development are needed on the effect of MP pollution on human health. This article provides a perspective on the origin and distribution of MP pollution in waterbodies (e.g., rivers, ponds, lakes, and seas) and wastewater treatment plants, and reviews the possible remediation of MP pollution related to the excessive disposal of face masks and PPE kits to aquatic environments.

Water Quality and Water Pollution in Time of COVID-19: Positive and Negative Repercussions

On 11 March 2020, the World Health Organization declared the new COVID-19 disease a pandemic. Most countries responded with a lockdown to reduce its effects, which brought beneficial consequences to the environment in many regions, but the pandemic also raised a series of challenges. This review proposes an assessment of the COVID-19 pandemic positive and negative impacts on water bodies on different continents. By applying a search protocol on the Web of Science platform, a scientific bank of 35 compatible studies was obtained out of the 62 open-access articles that were initially accessible. Regarding the positive impacts, the SARS-CoV-2 monitoring in sewage waters is a useful mechanism in the promptly exposure of community infections and, during the pandemic, many water bodies all over the world had lower pollution levels. The negative impacts are as follows: SARS-CoV-2 presence in untreated sewage water amplifies the risk to human health; there is a lack of adequate elimination processes of plastics, drugs, and biological pollution in wastewater treatment plants; the amount of municipal and medical waste that pollutes water bodies increased; and waste recycling decreased. Urgent preventive measures need to be taken to implement effective solutions for water protection.

A Low-Cost Microfluidic Method for Microplastics Identification: Towards Continuous Recognition

Plastic pollution has emerged as a growing concern worldwide. In particular, the most abundant plastic debris, microplastics, has necessitated the development of rapid and effective identification methods to track down the stages and evidence of the pollution. In this paper, we combine low-cost plastic staining technologies using Nile Red with the continuous feature offered by microfluidics to propose a low-cost 3D printed device for the identification of microplastics. It is observed that the microfluidic devices indicate comparable staining and identification performance compared to conventional Nile Red staining processes while offering the advantages of continuous recognition for long-term environmental monitoring. The results also show that concentration, temperature, and residency time possess strong effects on the identification performance. Finally, various microplastics have been applied to further demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed devices. It is found that, among different types of microplastics, non-spherical microplastics show the maximal fluorescence level. Meanwhile, natural fibers indicate better staining quality when compared to synthetic ones.

Nanocellulose-based membrane as a potential material for high performance biodegradable aerosol respirators for SARS-CoV-2 prevention: a review

The controversy surrounding the transmission of COVID-19 in 2020 has revealed the need to better understand the airborne transmission route of respiratory viruses to establish appropriate strategies to limit their transmission. The effectiveness in protecting against COVID-19 has led to a high demand for face masks. This includes the single-use of non-degradable masks and Filtering Facepiece Respirators by a large proportion of the public, leading to environmental concerns related to waste management. Thus, nanocellulose-based membranes are a promising environmental solution for aerosol filtration due to their biodegradability, renewability, biocompatibility, high specific surface area, non-toxicity, ease of functionalization and worldwide availability. Although the technology for producing high-performance aerosol filter membranes from cellulose-based materials is still in its initial stage, several promising results show the prospects of the use of this kind of materials. This review focuses on the overview of nanocellulose-based filter media, including its processing, desirable characteristics and recent developments regarding filtration, functionalization, biodegradability, and mechanical behavior. The porosity control, surface wettability and surface functional groups resulting from the silylation treatment to improve the filtration capacity of the nanocellulose-based membrane is discussed. Future research trends in this area are planned to develop the air filter media by reinforcing the filter membrane structure of CNF with CNCs. In addition, the integration of sol-gel technology into the production of an air filter can tailor the pore size of the membrane for a viable physical screening solution in future studies.

Disinfection methods against SARS-CoV-2: a systematic review

Background

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of coronavirus disease 2019, has caused millions of deaths worldwide. The virus is transmitted by inhalation of infectious particles suspended in the air, direct deposition on mucous membranes and indirect contact via contaminated surfaces. Disinfection methods that can halt such transmission are important in this pandemic and in future viral infections.

Aim

To highlight the efficacy of several disinfection methods against SARS-CoV-2 based on up-to-date evidence found in the literature.

Methods

Two databases were searched to identify studies that assessed disinfection methods used against SARS-CoV-2. In total, 1229 studies were identified and 60 of these were included in this review. Quality assessment was evaluated by the Office of Health Assessment and Translation's risk-of-bias tool.

Findings

Twenty-eight studies investigated disinfection methods on environmental surfaces, 16 studies investigated disinfection methods on biological surfaces, four studies investigated disinfection methods for airborne coronavirus, and 16 studies investigated methods used to recondition personal protective equipment (PPE).

Conclusions

Several household and hospital disinfection agents and ultraviolet-C (UV-C) irradiation were effective for inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 on environmental surfaces. Formulations containing povidone-iodine can provide virucidal action on the skin and mucous membranes. In the case of hand hygiene, typical soap bars and alcohols can inactivate SARS-CoV-2. Air filtration systems incorporated with materials that possess catalytic properties, UV-C devices and heating systems can reduce airborne viral particles effectively. The decontamination of PPE can be conducted safely by heat and ozone treatment.

Unfolding the interaction between microplastics and (trace) elements in water: A critical review

Plastic and microplastic pollution is an environmental and societal concern. The interaction of plastic with organic chemicals in the environment has attracted scientific interest. New evidences have highlighted an unexpectedly high affinity of environmental plastics also for metal ions. The degree and typology of plastic ageing (including from mechanical, UV and biological degradations) appear as a pivotal factor determining such an interaction. These earlier evidences recently opened a new research avenue in the plastic pollution area. This review is the first to organize and critically discuss knowledge developed so far. Results from field and laboratory studies of metal accumulation on plastic are presented and the environmental factors most likely to control such an interaction are discussed. On the light of this knowledge, a generalist conceptual model useful for building hypotheses on the mechanisms at stake and directing future studies was elaborated and presented here. Furthermore, all available data on the thermodynamics of the plastic-metal interaction obtained from laboratory experiments are inventoried and discussed here, highlighting methodological and technical challenges that can potentially affect cross-comparability of data and their relevance for environmental settings. Finally, insights and recommendations on experimental approaches and analytical techniques that can help overtaking current limitations and knowledge gaps are proposed.