Design of a Functional Pea Protein Matrix for Fermented Plant-Based Cheese

Recent updates on plant protein-based dairy cheese alternatives: outlook and challenges

In response to population growth, ethical considerations, and the environmental impacts of animal proteins, researchers are intensifying efforts to find alternative protein sources that replicate the functionality and nutritional profile of animal proteins. In this regard, plant-based cheese alternatives are becoming increasingly common in the marketplace, as one of the emerging dairy-free products. However, the dairy industry faces challenges in developing dairy-free products alternatives that meet the demands of customers with specific lifestyles or diets, ensure sustainability, and retain traditional customers. These challenges include food neophobia, the need to mimic the physicochemical, sensory, functional, and nutritional properties of dairy products, the inefficient conversion factor of plant-based proteins into animal proteins, and high production expenses. Given the distinct nature of plant-based milks, understanding their differences from cow's milk is crucial for formulating alternatives with comparable properties. Designing dairy-free cheese analogs requires overcoming electrostatic repulsion energy barriers among plant proteins to induce gelation and curd formation. Innovative approaches have substantially enhanced the physicochemical and sensory properties of these alternatives. Researchers are exploring the application of microalgae as a plant protein source and investigating new microbial fermentation methods to increase protein content in dairy-free products.

Plant-based cheese analogs: structure, texture, and functionality

Plant-based cheese analogs have been developed using plant-based ingredients to mimic the appearance, structure, and flavor of conventional cheeses. Due to the complex composition and structure of cheese, developing plant-based cheese analogs that completely replicate its physicochemical, structural, sensory, and nutritional features is a highly challenging endeavor. Therefore, the design of the structure of plant-based cheese analogs requires a critical evaluation of the functional features of the selected ingredients and the specialized combination of these ingredients to create a desired structure. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of the structure, texture, and functionality of plant-based cheese analogs, covering the formulation and the characteristic properties of the end-use product, such as rheological behavior and microstructural properties, as well as tribology perspectives. Subsequently, the melting and stretchability characteristics of these products have been assessed to comprehend the response of plant-based cheese substitutes when subjected to heat.

Selection of adjunct cultures for the ripening of plant cheese analogues

Fermentation contributes to the taste and odor of plant cheeses. The selection of functional cultures for the fermentation of plant cheeses, however, is in its infancy. This study aimed to select lactic acid bacteria for ripening of soy and lupin cheese analogues. Bacillus velezensis and B. amyloliquefaciens were used for germination of seeds to produce proteolytic enzymes; Lactococcus lactis and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum served as primary acidifying cultures. Levilactobacillus hammesii, Furfurilactobacillus milii, or Lentilactobacillus buchneri were assessed as adjunct cultures for the ripening of plant cheese. Growth of bacilli was inhibited at low pH. Both Lc. lactis and Lp. plantarum were inactived during plant cheese ripening. Cell counts of Lv. hammesii remained stable over 45 d of ripening while Ff. milii and Lt. buchneri grew slowly. Sequencing of full length 16S rRNA genes confirmed that the inocula the plant cheeses accounted for more than 98% of the bacterial communities. HPLC analysis revealed that Lt. buchneri metabolized lactate to acetate and 1,2-propanediol during ripening. Bacilli enhanced proteolysis as measured by quantification of free amino nitrogen, and the release of glutamate. LC-MS/MS analysis quantified kokumi-active dipeptides. The concentrations of γ-Glu-Leu, γ-Glu-Ile, and γ-Glu-Ala, γ-Glu-Cys in unripened cheeses were increased by seed germination but γ-Glu-Phe was degraded. Lt. buchneri but not Lv. hammesii or Ff. milii accumulated γ-Glu-Val, γ-Glu-Ile or γ-Glu-Leu during ripening, indicating strain-specific differences. In conclusion, a consortium of bacilli, acidification cultures and adjunct cultures accumulates taste- and kokumi-active compounds during ripening of plant cheeses.

Nutritional and microbial profiles of ripened plant-based cheese analogs collected from the European market

Plant-based cheese analogs have emerged as a novel global market trend driven by sustainability concerns for our planet. This study examines eleven soft ripened plant-based cheese analogs produced in Europe, primarily with bloomy rinds and cashew nuts as the main ingredient. First, we focused on exploring the macronutrients and salt content stated on the labels, as well a detailed fatty acid analysis of the samples. Compared to dairy cheeses, plant-based cheeses share similarities in lipid content, but their fatty acid profiles diverge significantly, with higher ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids such as oleic and linoleic acids. We also investigated the microbiota of these analog products, employing a culture-dependent and -independent approaches. We identified a variety of microorganisms in the plant-based cheeses, with Lactococcus lactis and Leuconostoc mesenteroides being the dominant bacterial species, and Geotrichum candidum and Penicillium camemberti the dominant fungal species. Most of the species characterized are similar to those present in dairy cheeses, suggesting that they have been inoculated as culture starters to contribute to the sensorial acceptance of plant-based cheeses. However, we also identify several species that are possibly intrinsic to plant matrices or originate from the production environment, such as Pediococcus pentosaceus and Enterococcus spp. This coexistence of typical dairy-associated organisms with plant associated species highlights the potential microbial dynamics inherent in the production of plant-based cheese. These findings will contribute to a better understanding of plant-based cheese alternatives, enable the development of sustainable products, and pave the way for future research exploring the use of plant-based substrates in the production of cheese analogues.

Optimization of citrus fiber-enriched vegan cream cheese alternative and its influence on chemical, physical, and sensory properties

Dairy product alternatives have increased in recent years as a result of medical prescriptions or personal preferences. The main purpose of the present study was to optimize vegan-based cream cheese formulation added with citrus fiber considering the textural and physicochemical properties of the samples. The physicochemical (pH value, water activity, and color), texture, microstructure, and sensory properties of manufactured vegan-based cream cheese were characterized and compared to those of a commercial one. Three optimized products were produced, according to the textural properties. The addition of citrus fiber did not affect the pH and water activity values of the cheese samples significantly. Although citrus fiber had an effect on the color values of the samples, a significant difference in the sensory scores was not recorded by the panelists. The sample having 1.21% citrus fiber (A) showed a hardness value similar to that of control sample and it received high sensory appreciation. The sample added with 1.41% citrus fiber (B) was scored high by the panelists, with no significant difference compared to commercial cream cheese, even though it showed high hardness. According to the results of the current research, vegan-based cream cheese can be produced as a promising food as a new alternative to milk and dairy products.

The role of fermentation with lactic acid bacteria in quality and health effects of plant-based dairy analogues

The modern food industry is undergoing a rapid change with the trend of production of plant-based food products that are more sustainable and have less impact on nature. Plant-based dairy analogues have been increasingly popular due to their suitability for individuals with milk protein allergy or lactose intolerance and those preferring a plant-based diet. Nevertheless, plant-based products still have insufficient nutritional quality, undesirable structure, and earthy, green, and bean-like flavor compared to dairy products. In addition, most plant-based foods contain lesser amounts of essential nutrients, antinutrients limiting the bioavailability of some nutrients, and allergenic proteins. Novel processing technologies can be applied to have a homogeneous and stable structure. On the other hand, fermentation of plant-based matrix with lactic acid bacteria can provide a solution to most of these problems. Additional nutrients can be produced and antinutrients can be degraded by bacterial metabolism, thereby increasing nutritional value. Allergenic proteins can be hydrolyzed reducing their immunoreactivity. In addition, fermentation has been found to reduce undesired flavors and to enhance various bioactivities of plant foods. However, the main challenge in the production of fermented plant-based dairy analogues is to mimic familiar dairy-like flavors by producing the major flavor compounds other than organic acids, yielding a flavor profile similar to those of fermented dairy products. Further studies are required for the improvement of the flavor of fermented plant-based dairy analogues through the selection of special microbial cultures and formulations.

Production of a Cheese-Like Aroma via Fermentation of Plant Proteins and Coconut Oil with the Basidiomycetes Cyclocybe aegerita and Trametes versicolor

Cheese is one of the most common dairy products and is characterized by its complex aroma. However, in times of climate change and resource scarcity, the possibility to mimic the characteristic cheese-like aroma from plant-based sources is in demand to offer alternatives to cheese. Accordingly, the production of a natural cheese-like aroma via fermentation of four plant-based proteins and coconut oil with basidiomycetes has been addressed. Mixtures of soy and sunflower protein with coconut oil (15 g/L) have shown the formation of a cheese-like aroma after 72 and 56 h after fermentation with Cyclocybe aegerita and Trametes versicolor, respectively. Isovaleric acid, butanoic acid, ethyl butanoate, 1-octen-3-ol, and various ketones were identified as the key odorants. Similarities to typical cheeses were observed by the principal component analysis. Overall, the finding offered an approach to a sustainable production of a natural cheese-like aroma from a plant source, thus contributing to the development of cheese alternatives.

The effect of seed germination and Bacillus spp. on the ripening of plant cheese analogs

Consumer demand for plant cheeses is increasing, but challenges of improving both flavor and quality remain. This study investigated the microbiological and physicochemical impact of seed germination and fermentation with Bacillus velezensis and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens on the ripening of plant cheese analogs. Chlorine treatment or addition of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum and Lactococcus lactis controlled microbial growth during seed germination. Lp. plantarum and Lc. lactis also served as starter cultures for the acidification of soy and lupine milk and were subsequently present in the unripened plant cheese as dominant microbes. Acidification also inhibited the growth and metabolic activity of bacilli but Bacillus spores remained viable throughout ripening. During plant cheese ripening, Lc. lactis was inactivated before Lp. plantarum and the presence of bacilli during seed germination delayed Lc. lactis inactivation. Metagenomic sequencing of full-length 16S rRNA gene amplicons confirmed that the relative abundance of the inoculated strains in each ripened cheese sample exceeded 99%. Oligosaccharides including raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose were rapidly depleted in the initial stage of ripening. Both germination and the presence of bacilli during seed germination had impact on polysaccharide hydrolysis during ripening. Bacilli but not seed germination enhanced proteolysis of plant cheese during ripening. In conclusion, the use of germination with lactic acid bacteria in combination with Bacillus spp. exhibited the potential to improve the quality of ripened plant cheeses with a positive effect on the reduction of hygienic risks.

IMPORTANCE

The development of novel plant-based fermented food products for which no traditional templates exist requires the development of starter cultures. Although the principles of microbial flavor formation in plant-based analogs partially overlap with dairy fermentations, the composition of the raw materials and thus likely the selective pressure on the activity of starter cultures differs. Experiments that are described in this study explored the use of seed germination, the use of lactic acid bacteria, and the use of bacilli to reduce hygienic risks, to acidify plant milk, and to generate taste-active compounds through proteolysis and fermentative conversion of carbohydrates. The characterization of fermentation microbiota by culture-dependent and culture-independent methods also confirmed that the starter cultures used were able to control microbial communities throughout 90 d of ripening. Taken together, the results provide novel tools for the development of plant-based analogs of fermented dairy products.

Towards halal pharmaceutical: Exploring alternatives to animal-based ingredients

Halal is a crucial concept for Muslim consumers regarding consumed products, including pharmaceutical ingredients, which are essential in modern medicine. To address the issue of using porcine-sourced ingredients in pharmaceuticals, it is essential to search for halal alternatives derived from poultry, animal by-products from meat processing, marine sources, and plants. However, the complexity of this problem is further compounded by the rapid advances in innovation and technology, which can lead to adulteration of ingredients derived from pigs. Other challenges include the sustainability of alternative materials, management of waste or by-products practice, halal awareness, certification, government policies, religious adherence of consumers, food suppliers, marketers, and purchasing of products. The importance of halal and non-halal problems, specifically in the context of pharmaceutical materials, is still rarely discussed, including alternatives derived from poultry, animal by-products, marine sources, and plants. Due to the increasing global population, there is a growing need to increase awareness and concern among Muslim consumers for halal products, including pharmaceuticals. Therefore, this research aimed to investigate the importance of halal and non-halal issues in pharmaceutical ingredients, the potential impact on the Muslim community, as well as opportunities and challenges in the search for alternative ingredients.

Replacing animal proteins with plant proteins: Is this a way to improve quality and functional properties of hybrid cheeses and cheese analogs?

The growing emphasis on dietary health has facilitated the development of plant-based foods. Plant proteins have excellent functional attributes and health-enhancing effects and are also environmentally conscientious and animal-friendly protein sources on a global scale. The addition of plant proteins (including soy protein, pea protein, zein, nut protein, and gluten protein) to diverse cheese varieties and cheese analogs holds the promise of manufacturing symbiotic products that not only have reduced fat content but also exhibit improved protein diversity and overall quality. In this review, we summarized the utilization and importance of various plant proteins in the production of hybrid cheeses and cheese analogs. Meanwhile, classification and processing methods related to these cheese products were reviewed. Furthermore, the impact of different plant proteins on the microstructure, textural properties, physicochemical attributes, rheological behavior, functional aspects, microbiological aspects, and sensory characteristics of both hybrid cheeses and cheese analogs were discussed and compared. Our study explores the potential for the development of cheeses made from full/semi-plant protein ingredients with greater sustainability and health benefits. Additionally, it further emphasizes the substantial chances for scholars and developers to investigate the optimal processing methods and applications of plant proteins in cheeses, thereby improving the market penetration of plant protein hybrid cheeses and cheese analogs.

Enhancing the textural and rheological properties of fermentation-induced pea protein emulsion gels with transglutaminase

The aim of this study was to assess how transglutaminase (TG) impacts the microstructure, texture, and rheological properties of fermentation-induced pea protein emulsion gels. Additionally, the study examined the influence of storage time on the functional properties of these gels. Fermentation-induced pea protein gels were produced in the presence or absence of TG and stored for 1, 4, 8, 12, and 16 weeks. Texture analysis, rheological measurements, moisture content and microstructure evaluation with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and 3D image analysis were conducted to explore the effects of TG on the structural and rheological properties of the fermented samples. The porosity of the protein networks in the pea gels decreased in the presence of TG, the storage modulus increased and the textural characteristics were significantly improved, resulting in harder and more springy gels. The gel porosity increased in gels with and without TG after storage but the effect of storage on textural and rheological properties was limited, indicating limited structural rearrangement once the fermentation-induced pea protein emulsion gels are formed. Greater coalescence was observed for oil droplets within the gel matrix after 16 weeks of storage in the absence of TG, consistent with these protein structures being weaker than the more structurally stable TG-treated gels. This study shows that TG treatment is a powerful tool to enhance the textural and rheological properties of fermentation-induced pea protein emulsion gels.

Modification and Solubility Enhancement of Rice Protein and Its Application in Food Processing: A Review

Rice protein is a high-quality plant-based protein source that is gluten-free, with high biological value and low allergenicity. However, the low solubility of rice protein not only affects its functional properties such as emulsification, gelling, and water-holding capacity but also greatly limits its applications in the food industry. Therefore, it is crucial to modify and improve the solubility of rice protein. In summary, this article discusses the underlying causes of the low solubility of rice protein, including the presence of high contents of hydrophobic amino acid residues, disulfide bonds, and intermolecular hydrogen bonds. Additionally, it covers the shortcomings of traditional modification methods and the latest compound improvement methods, compares various modification methods, and puts forward the best sustainable, economical, and environmentally friendly method. Finally, this article lists the uses of modified rice protein in dairy, meat, and baked goods, providing a reference for the extensive application of rice protein in the food industry.

Fermentation for Designing Innovative Plant-Based Meat and Dairy Alternatives

Fermentation was traditionally used all over the world, having the preservation of plant and animal foods as a primary role. Owing to the rise of dairy and meat alternatives, fermentation is booming as an effective technology to improve the sensory, nutritional, and functional profiles of the new generation of plant-based products. This article intends to review the market landscape of fermented plant-based products with a focus on dairy and meat alternatives. Fermentation contributes to improving the organoleptic properties and nutritional profile of dairy and meat alternatives. Precision fermentation provides more opportunities for plant-based meat and dairy manufacturers to deliver a meat/dairy-like experience. Seizing the opportunities that the progress of digitalization is offering would boost the production of high-value ingredients such as enzymes, fats, proteins, and vitamins. Innovative technologies such as 3D printing could be an effective post-processing solution following fermentation in order to mimic the structure and texture of conventional products.

Ingredients, Processing, and Fermentation: Addressing the Organoleptic Boundaries of Plant-Based Dairy Analogues

Consumer interest and research in plant-based dairy analogues has been growing in recent years because of increasingly negative implications of animal-derived products on human health, animal wellbeing, and the environment. However, plant-based dairy analogues face many challenges in mimicking the organoleptic properties of dairy products due to their undesirable off-flavours and textures. This article thus reviews fermentation as a viable pathway to developing clean-label plant-based dairy analogues with satisfactory consumer acceptability. Discussions on complementary strategies such as raw material selection and extraction technologies are also included. An overview of plant raw materials with the potential to be applied in dairy analogues is first discussed, followed by a review of the processing steps and innovative techniques required to transform these plant raw materials into functional ingredients such as plant-based aqueous extracts or flours for subsequent fermentation. Finally, the various fermentation (bacterial, yeast, and fungal) methodologies applied for the improvement of texture and other sensory qualities of plant-based dairy analogues are covered. Concerted research efforts would be required in the future to tailor and optimise the presented wide diversity of options to produce plant-based fermented dairy analogues that are both delicious and nutritionally adequate.