Efficacy of Commercial Sanitizers Used in Food Processing Facilities for Inactivation of Listeria Monocytogenes, E. Coli O157:H7, and Salmonella Biofilms

Antibiofilm Effect of Sequential Application of Ozonated Water, Acetic Acid and Lactic Acid on Salmonella Typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms In Vitro

Biofilms are highly resistant to disinfectants and antimicrobials and are known as the primary source of food contamination. Salmonella Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) have an excellent ability to form biofilm. This study aimed to evaluate the antibiofilm activity of ozonated water (O), acetic acid (AA), and lactic acid (LA), individually and sequentially, against biofilms of S. Typhimurium and S. aureus formed on the polystyrene surfaces. The antibiofilm effects of the treatments were evaluated using crystal violet staining and the viable count determination methods. In the staining method, the highest percentage of biofilm mass reduction was induced by successive use of ozonated water and acetic acid (O-AA), which reduced S. aureus biofilm mass by 44.36%. The sequential use of ozonated water and lactic acid (O-LA) could decrease S. Typhimurium biofilm mass by 57.26%. According to the viable count method, the most effective treatment was the sequential use of ozonated water and lactic acid (O-LA), which reduced S. aureus and S. Typhimurium biofilms by 1.76 and 4.06 log, respectively. It was concluded that the sequential use of ozonated water and organic acids can be considered a practical and environmentally friendly approach to control biofilms.

Sanitizer resistance and persistence of Listeria monocytogenes isolates in tree fruit packing facilities

The foodborne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes can persist in produce processing environments, which increases the risk for food contamination. Increased resistance to antimicrobials commonly used in cleaning and sanitizing procedures may contribute to L. monocytogenes' persistence in these environments. This study aimed to evaluate sanitizer resistance in L. monocytogenes isolates collected from three tree fruit packing facilities (F1, F2, and F3) during packing seasons 2020-2021 (Y1) and 2021-2022 (Y2), and to assess evidence of persistence based on the genomic similarity of isolates to historical isolates collected in previous years. L. monocytogenes isolates collected in 2020-2022 (n = 44) were tested for resistance to peroxyacetic acid (PAA) and a proprietary biofilm removing agent using a broth microdilution assay. Further, L. monocytogenes isolates were whole genome sequenced and screened for the presence of antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes, as well as to assess the genomic similarity of isolates using the CFSAN SNP bioinformatic pipeline. Over half (57%) of the tested isolates had a PAA minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 250 ppm, which was similar to the applied concentration of the PAA sanitizer in the three facilities (230 ppm). In contrast, 80% of tested isolates had a biofilm remover MIC of 0.13 ppm, which was substantially below the concentration applied in the facilities (137 ppm). Genomes of all tested isolates carried antimicrobial resistance (fosX, lin, mdrL, mprF, and norB) and virulence (inlA, inlB, plcA, plcB, prfA, hly, mpl, and iap) genes. L. monocytogenes isolates collected between 2020-2022 belonged to three distinct lineages, with 22 multilocus sequence types (MLST) belonging to 22 different clonal complexes. Genomic similarity analysis with historical isolates collected from the same facilities in 2016-2017 demonstrated a 5-year persistence of the genotypes ST 1003 and ST 554 in F2, which were no longer detected in 2022. Overall, our results highlight the need to re-evaluate sanitizer concentrations to effectively control persistent L. monocytogenes strains in tree fruit packing facilities.

Effectiveness of Chemical Sanitizers against Salmonella Typhimurium in Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) Hydroponic Systems: Implications for Food Safety, Crop Quality, and Nutrient Content in Leafy Greens

Hydroponic farming systems play an increasingly important role in the sustainable production of nutrient-rich foods. The contamination of surfaces in hydroponic fresh produce production poses risks to the food safety of crops, potentially endangering public health and causing economic losses in the industry. While sanitizers are widely used in commercial hydroponic farms, their effectiveness against human pathogens on surfaces and their impact on plant health and quality are not known. In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of chemical sanitizers in eliminating Salmonella Typhimurium from inanimate surfaces in commercial hydroponic Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) systems. Further, we assessed the impact of sanitizers on the yield, quality, and nutritional value of lettuce and basil. Sanitizers (Virkon, LanXess, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; SaniDate 12.0, BioSafe Systems, East Hartford, CT, USA; KleenGrow, Pace Chemical Ltd., Delta, BC, Canada; Green Shield, United Labs Inc., St Charles, IL, USA; Zerotol, BioSafe Systems, East Hartford, CT, USA; Bleach, Pure Bright, ON, Canada) were tested against Salmonella Typhimurium inoculated on NFT surfaces (nutrient reservoir, growing channels, top covers, drain lines). The effective treatments were then tested for their impact on lettuce and basil in a split-plot experiment conducted in commercial NFT units. Crop yield, color, and nutrient content (chlorophyll and carotenoids) were measured throughout the crop life cycle. While all quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC), SaniDate 12.0 (200 ppm), Zorotol (5%), and Virkon (1%) eliminated Salmonella Typhimurium from commercial NFT surfaces, chlorine-based sanitizer treatments were statistically similar to water treatments on most surfaces. All chemical sanitizers impacted the yield, color, and nutritional value of lettuce and basil. SaniDate 12.0 (200 ppm) was the least detrimental to crops and was identified as a potential candidate for further validation in commercial hydroponic settings. The findings of this study will be translated into recommendations for the industry and will contribute to the development of future food safety guidelines and policies.

Salmonella-induced microbiome profile in response to sanitation by quaternary ammonium chloride

Salmonella enterica is a prominent cause of foodborne disease in the United States. However, the mechanism and route of pathogen transmission that leads to Salmonella infection in commercial processing plants are poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate the effect of mixed-species biofilms on S. enterica survival and persistence under sanitizer stress [Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs)] by analyzing 78 floor drain samples from a meat processing facility and three S. enterica strains (serovars Cerro, Montevideo, and Typhimurium) isolated from that facility and an unrelated source. The four test groups were as follows: control, QAC treatment, Salmonella addition, and QAC treatment with Salmonella addition. DNAs were extracted, and 16S rRNA gene based on the variable region V4 amplicon sequencing was performed to analyze the relative abundance, core microbiome, and Alpha and Beta diversity using the qiime2 pipeline. At the genus level, the Brochothrix (45.56%), Pseudomonas (38.94%), Carnobacterium (6.18%), Lactococcus (4.68%), Serratia (3.14%), and Staphylococcus (0.82%) were shown to be the most prevalent in all drain samples. The results demonstrate that the relative abundance of different bacterial genera was affected by both QAC treatment and Salmonella addition, with some genera showing increases or decreases in abundance. Notably, the correlation network was constructed to understand the relationships between the different bacteria. Nitrospira had the greatest number of connections in the floor drain environment network, with two negative and eight positive correlations. The results suggest that Nitrospira in the mixed-species biofilm community may play a role in converting ammonium in the QAC sanitizer into nitrites. Thus, Nitrospira could be a potentially important genus in providing sanitizer resistance to pathogen-encompassed mixed-species biofilms.IMPORTANCESalmonella contamination in meat processing facilities can lead to foodborne illness outbreaks. Our study characterized the microbiome dynamics in beef facility drains and their response to Salmonella addition and common sanitizer (QAC). Nitrospira could be an important genus in providing sanitizer resistance to pathogen-encompassed mixed-species biofilms. The results provide insight into the impact of mixed-species biofilms on Salmonella survival and persistence under sanitizer stress in meat processing facilities. The results highlight the need to consider mixed-species biofilm effects when developing targeted interventions to enhance food safety.

Synergistic Strategies of Heat and Peroxyacetic Acid Disinfection Treatments for Salmonella Control

The food industry has recognized a pressing need for highly effective disinfection protocols to decrease the risk of pathogen emergence and proliferation in food products. The integration of antimicrobial treatments in food production has occurred as a potential strategy to attain food items of superior quality with respect to microbiological safety and sensory attributes. This study aims to investigate the individual and synergistic effects of heat and peroxyacetic acid on the inactivation of bacterial cells, considering various contact times and environmental conditions. Four Salmonella serotypes, isolated from industrial meat production surfaces, were employed as model organisms. By systematically assessing the impacts of individual factors and synergistic outcomes, the effectiveness of bacterial cell inactivation and the efficiency of heat and peroxyacetic acid could be predicted. To better approximate real-world food processing conditions, this study also incorporated a bovine albumin-rich condition as a simulation of the presence of organic loads in processing steps. The findings revealed the essential need for a synergistic interplay of investigated parameters with the following optimized values: 1.5% concentration of peroxyacetic acid, temperature range of 60-65 °C, and contact time of 3 min for the complete effect regardless of the degree of contamination.

A novel method using a differential staining fluorescence microscopy (DSFM) to track the location of enteric pathogens within mixed-species biofilms

This study developed a new tool, differential staining fluorescence microscopy (DSFM), to measure the biovolume and track the location of enteric pathogens in mixed-species biofilms which can pose a risk to food safety in beef processing facilities. DSFM was employed to examine the impact of pathogenic bacteria, Escherichia coli O157:H7 and three different Salmonella enterica strains on mixed-species biofilms of beef processing facilities. Fourteen floor drain biofilm samples from three beef processing plants were incubated with overnight BacLight stained enteric pathogens at 7 °C for 5 days on stainless steel surface then counter-stained with FM-1-43 biofilm stain and analyzed using fluorescence microscopy. Notable variations in biovolume of biofilms were observed across the fourteen samples. The introduction of E. coli O157:H7 and S. enterica strains resulted in diverse alterations of biofilm biovolume, suggesting distinct impacts on mixed-species biofilms by different enteric pathogens which were revealed to be located in the upper layer of the mixed-species biofilms. Pathogen strain growth curve comparisons and verification of BacLight Red Stain staining effectiveness were validated. The findings of this study show that the DSFM method is a promising approach to studying the location of enteric pathogens within mixed-species biofilms recovered from processing facilities. Understanding how foodborne pathogens interact with biofilms will allow for improved targeted antimicrobial interventions.

Listeria monocytogenes in food businesses: From persistence strategies to intervention/prevention strategies-A review

In 2023, Listeria monocytogenes persistence remains a problem in the food business. A profound understanding of how this pathogen persists may lead to better aimed intervention/prevention strategies. The lack of a uniform definition of persistence makes the comparison between studies complex. Harborage sites offer protection against adverse environmental conditions and form the ideal habitat for the formation of biofilms, one of the major persistence strategies. A retarded growth rate, disinfectant resistance/tolerance, desiccation resistance/tolerance, and protozoan protection complete the list of persistence strategies for Listeria monocytogenes and can occur on themselves or in combination with biofilms. Based on the discussed persistence strategies, intervention strategies are proposed. By enhancing the focus on four precaution principles (cleaning and disinfection, infrastructure/hygienic design, technical maintenance, and work methodology) as mentioned in Regulation (EC) No. 852/2004, the risk of persistence can be decreased. All of the intervention strategies result in obtaining and maintaining a good general hygiene status throughout the establishment at all levels ranging from separate equipment to the entire building.

Antibiofilm mechanism of peppermint essential oil to avert biofilm developed by foodborne and food spoilage pathogens on food contact surfaces

Establishing efficient methods to combat bacterial biofilms is a major concern. Natural compounds, such as essential oils derived from plants, are among the favored and recommended strategies for combatting bacteria and their biofilm. Therefore, we evaluated the antibiofilm properties of peppermint oil as well as the activities by which it kills bacteria generally and particularly their biofilms. Peppermint oil antagonistic activities were investigated against Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Listeria monocytogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Salmonella Typhimurium on four food contact surfaces (stainless steel, rubber, high-density polyethylene, and polyethylene terephthalate). Biofilm formation on each studied surface, hydrophobicity, autoaggregation, metabolic activity, and adenosine triphosphate quantification were evaluated for each bacterium in the presence and absence (control) of peppermint oil. Real-time polymerase chain reaction, confocal laser scanning microscopy, and field-emission scanning electron microscopy were utilized to analyze the effects of peppermint oil treatment on the bacteria and their biofilm. Results showed that peppermint oil (1/2× minimum inhibitory concentration [MIC], MIC, and 2× MIC) substantially lessened biofilm formation, with high bactericidal properties. A minimum of 2.5-log to a maximum of around 5-log reduction was attained, with the highest sensitivity shown by V. parahaemolyticus. Morphological experiments revealed degradation of the biofilm structure, followed by some dead cells with broken membranes. Thus, this study established the possibility of using peppermint oil to combat key foodborne and food spoilage pathogens in the food processing environment.

Biofilm Formation and Control of Foodborne Pathogenic Bacteria

Biofilms are microbial aggregation membranes that are formed when microorganisms attach to the surfaces of living or nonliving things. Importantly, biofilm properties provide microorganisms with protection against environmental pressures and enhance their resistance to antimicrobial agents, contributing to microbial persistence and toxicity. Thus, bacterial biofilm formation is part of the bacterial survival mechanism. However, if foodborne pathogens form biofilms, the risk of foodborne disease infections can be greatly exacerbated, which can cause major public health risks and lead to adverse economic consequences. Therefore, research on biofilms and their removal strategies are very important in the food industry. Food waste due to spoilage within the food industry remains a global challenge to environmental sustainability and the security of food supplies. This review describes bacterial biofilm formation, elaborates on the problem associated with biofilms in the food industry, enumerates several kinds of common foodborne pathogens in biofilms, summarizes the current strategies used to eliminate or control harmful bacterial biofilm formation, introduces the current and emerging control strategies, and emphasizes future development prospects with respect to bacterial biofilms.

Overuse of food-grade disinfectants threatens a global spread of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria

Food-grade disinfectants are extensively used for microbial decontamination of food processing equipment. In recent years, food-grade disinfectants have been increasingly used. However, the overuse of disinfectants causes another major issue, which is the emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria on a global scale. As the ongoing pandemic takes global attention, bacterial infections with antibiotic resistance are another ongoing pandemic that often goes unnoticed and will be the next real threat to humankind. Here, the effects of food-grade disinfectant overuse on the global emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria were reviewed. It was found that longtime exposure to the most common food-grade disinfectants promoted resistance to clinically important antibiotics in pathogenic bacteria, namely cross-resistance. Currently, the use of disinfectants is largely unregulated. The mechanisms of cross-resistance are regulated by intrinsic molecular mechanisms including efflux pumps, DNA repair system, modification of the molecular target, and metabolic adaptation. Cross-resistance can also be acquired by mobile genetic elements. Long-term exposure to disinfectants has an impact on the dissemination of antimicrobial resistance in soil, plants, animals, water, and human gut environments.

CAM-21, a novel lytic phage with high specificity towards Escherichia coli O157:H7 in food products

Escherichia coli O157:H7 is a foodborne pathogen that has become a serious global concern for food safety. Despite the application of different traditional biocontrol methods in the food industry, food borne disease outbreaks linked to this organism remain. Due to their high specificity, lytic bacteriophages are promising antimicrobial agents that could be utilized to control pathogens in foods. In this study, a novel Escherichia phage, CAM-21, was isolated from a dairy farm environment. CAM-21 showed targeted host specificity towards various serotypes of Shiga toxin-producing E. coli, including O157:H7, O26, O103, and O145. Morphological analyses revealed that CAM-21 has a polyhedron capsid and a contractile tail with a diameter of about 92.83 nm, and length of about 129.75 nm, respectively. CAM-21 showed a strong inhibitory effect on the growth of E. coli O157:H7, even at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of as low as 0.001. Phage adsorption and one-step growth analysis indicated that the target pathogen was rapidly lysed by CAM-21 that exhibited a short latent time (20 min). Electron microscopic and genomic DNA analyses suggested that CAM-21 is a lytic phage, classified as a new species in the Tequatrovirus genus of the Myoviridae Family. Based on whole genome sequencing, CAM-21 has a double-stranded DNA with 166,962 bp, 265 open reading frames and 11 tRNA. The genome of CAM-21 did not encode toxins, virulence factors, antibiotic resistance, lysogeny or allergens. Phylogenetic and genomic comparative analyses suggested that CAM-21 is a T4-like phage species. The growth of E. coli O157:H7 was effectively controlled in milk, ground beef and baby spinach at MOIs of 1000 and 10,000. CAM-21 significantly (P ≤ 0.05) reduced the bacterial counts of the treated foods, ranging from 1.4-2.0 log CFU/mL in milk to 1.3-1.4 log CFU/g in ground beef and baby spinach. These findings suggest that the lytic phage, CAM-21, is a potential candidate for controlling E. coli O157:H7 contamination in foods.

Cross-contamination of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes in the viable but non-culturable (VBNC) state during washing of leafy greens and the revival during shelf-life

Some water disinfection treatments, such as chlorine and chlorine dioxide, used in the fresh-cut industry to maintain the microbiological quality of process water (PW), inactivate bacterial cells in the water but they also lead to the induction of an intermediate state between viable and non-viable known as viable but non-culturable (VBNC) state. Viable cells can participate in cross-contamination events but the significance of VBNC cells in PW, transfer to the product and potential resuscitation capacity during storage is unclear. The present study aims to determine first, if VBNC cells present in PW can cross-contaminate leafy greens during washing and secondly its potential revival during shelf-life. Process water characterized by a high chemical oxygen demand, due to the presence of high levels of organic matter, was inoculated with Listeria monocytogenes or Escherichia coli O157:H7. Inoculated PW was then treated for 1 min with chlorine dioxide (3 mg/L) or chlorine (5 mg/L) to generate VBNC cells. Absence of culturable cells was confirmed by plate count and VBNC cells by viability quantitative polymerase chain reaction (v-qPCR) complemented with two dyes, ethidium (EMA) and propidium (PMAxx) monoazide. Cross-contamination of shredded lettuce was demonstrated by monitoring the VBNC cells after washing the product for 1 min in the contaminated PW and during shelf life (15 days at 7 °C). In the case of L. monocytogenes, considering the total concentration of L. monocytogenes VBNC cells present in the PW, only a low proportion of cells were able to cross-contaminate the product during washing. VBNC L. monocytogenes cells were able to resuscitate on the product during shelf life, although levels of cultivable bacteria, close to the limit if detection (0.7 ± 0.0 log CFU/g), were only detected at the end of storage. On the other hand, VBNC cells of E. coli O157:H7 present in PW were not able to cross-contaminate shredded lettuce during washing. Moreover, when shredded lettuce was artificially inoculated with VBNC E. coli O157:H7, resuscitation of the VBNC cells during storage (15 days at 7 °C) was not observed. Based on the results obtained, injured L. monocytogenes cells present in the PW are able to be transferred to the product during washing. If VBNC L. monocytogenes cells present in leafy greens (shredded lettuce and baby spinach), they can resuscitate, although cultivable numbers remained very low. Taking all the results together, it could be concluded that under industrial conditions, VBNC cells can be transferred from water to product during washing, but their capacity to resuscitate in the leafy greens during storage is low.

The Use of Natural Methods to Control Foodborne Biofilms

Biofilms are large aggregates of various species of bacteria or other microorganisms tightly attached to surfaces through an intricate extracellular matrix. These complex microbial communities present quite the challenge in the food processing industry, as conditions such as raw meats and diverse food product content in contact with workers, drains, machinery, and ventilation systems, make for prime circumstances for contamination. Adding to the challenge is the highly resistant nature of these biofilm growths and the need to keep in mind that any antimicrobials utilized in these situations risk health implications with human consumption of the products that are being processed in these locations. For that reason, the ideal means of sanitizing areas of foodborne biofilms would be natural means. Herein, we review a series of innovative natural methods of targeting foodborne biofilms, including bacteriocins, bacteriophages, fungi, phytochemicals, plant extracts, essential oils, gaseous and aqueous control, photocatalysis, enzymatic treatments, and ultrasound mechanisms.

Detection of β-Lactamase Resistance and Biofilm Genes in Pseudomonas Species Isolated from Chickens

Bacteria of the genus Pseudomonas are pathogens in both humans and animals. The most prevalent nosocomial pathogen is P. aeruginosa, particularly strains with elevated antibiotic resistance. In this study, a total of eighteen previously identified Pseudomonas species strains, were isolated from chicken. These strains were screened for biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance. In addition, we evaluated clove oil’s effectiveness against Pseudomonas isolates as an antibiofilm agent. The results showed that Pseudomonas species isolates were resistant to most antibiotics tested, particularly those from the β-lactamase family. A significant correlation (p < 0.05) between the development of multidrug-resistant isolates and biofilms is too informal. After amplifying the AmpC-plasmid-mediated genes (blaCMY, blaMIR, DHA, and FOX) and biofilm-related genes (psld, rhlA, and pelA) in most of our isolates, PCR confirmed this relationship. Clove oil has a potent antibiofilm effect against Pseudomonas isolates, and may provide a treatment for bacteria that form biofilms and are resistant to antimicrobials.

Listeria monocytogenes - How This Pathogen Survives in Food-Production Environments?

The foodborne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes is the causative agent of human listeriosis, a severe disease, especially dangerous for the elderly, pregnant women, and newborns. Although this infection is comparatively rare, it is often associated with a significant mortality rate of 20-30% worldwide. Therefore, this microorganism has an important impact on food safety. L. monocytogenes can adapt, survive and even grow over a wide range of food production environmental stress conditions such as temperatures, low and high pH, high salt concentration, ultraviolet lights, presence of biocides and heavy metals. Furthermore, this bacterium is also able to form biofilm structures on a variety of surfaces in food production environments which makes it difficult to remove and allows it to persist for a long time. This increases the risk of contamination of food production facilities and finally foods. The present review focuses on the key issues related to the molecular mechanisms of the pathogen survival and adaptation to adverse environmental conditions. Knowledge and understanding of the L. monocytogenes adaptation approaches to environmental stress factors will have a significant influence on the development of new, efficient, and cost-effective methods of the pathogen control in the food industry, which is critical to ensure food production safety.

Inactivation of Polymicrobial Biofilms of Foodborne Pathogens Using Epsilon Poly-L-Lysin Conjugated Chitosan Nanoparticles

A mixed culture (polymicrobial) biofilm provides a favorable environment for pathogens to persist in the food processing environment and to contaminate food products. Inactivation and eradication of such biofilms from food processing environments are achieved by using harsh disinfectants, but their toxicity and environmentally hostile characteristics are unsustainable. This study aims to use food-grade natural nanoparticulated antimicrobials to control mixed-culture biofilms. Chitosan, a natural broad-spectrum antimicrobial biopolymer (polysaccharide) from crustaceans, was derivatized to produce chitosan nanoparticles (ChNP) as a carrier for another broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent, ε-poly-L-lysine (PL), to synthesize ChNP-PL conjugate. The antimicrobial activity of ChNP and ChNP-PL was tested against mixed-culture biofilms. ChNP-PL (~100 nm) exhibited a synergistic antimicrobial and anti-biofilm effect against mono or mixed-culture biofilms of five foodborne pathogens, including Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. ChNP-PL treatment prevented biofilm formation by mono or mixed cultures of L. monocytogenes, P. aeruginosa, and E. coli O157:H7, and bacterial counts were either below the detection limit or caused 3.5–5 log reduction. ChNP-PL also inactivated preformed biofilms. In monoculture biofilm, ChNP-PL treatment reduced L. monocytogenes counts by 4.5 logs, S. Enteritidis by 2 logs, E. coli by 2 logs, and S. aureus by 0.5 logs, while ChNP-PL had no inhibitory effect on P. aeruginosa. In vitro mammalian cell-based cytotoxicity analysis confirmed ChNP-PL to have no deleterious effect on intestinal HCT-8 cell line. In conclusion, our results show ChNP-PL has strong potential to prevent the formation or inactivation of preformed polymicrobial biofilms of foodborne pathogens.

Thermoresistance in Black Yeasts Is Associated with Halosensitivity and High Pressure Processing Tolerance but Not with UV Tolerance or Sanitizer Tolerance

ABSTRACT

Black yeasts can survive extreme conditions in food production because of their polyextremotolerant character. However, significant strain-to-strain variation in black yeast thermoresistance has been observed. In this study, we assessed the variability in tolerance to nonthermal interventions among a collection of food-related black yeast strains. Variation in tolerance to UV light treatment, high pressure processing (HPP), sanitizers, and osmotic pressure was observed within each species. The two strains previously shown to possess high thermotolerance, Exophiala phaeomuriformis FSL-E2-0572 and Exophiala dermatitidis YB-734, were also the most HPP tolerant but were the least halotolerant. Meanwhile, Aureobasidium pullulans FSL-E2-0290 was the most UV and sanitizer tolerant but had been shown to have relatively low thermoresistance. Fisher's exact tests showed that thermoresistance in black yeasts was associated with HPP tolerance and inversely with halotolerance, but no association was found with UV tolerance or sanitizer tolerance. Collectively, the relative stress tolerance among strains varied across interventions. Given this variation, different food products are susceptible to black yeast spoilage. In addition, different strains should be selected in challenge studies specific to the intervention.

HIGHLIGHTS

The Use of Ozone as an Eco-Friendly Strategy against Microbial Biofilm in Dairy Manufacturing Plants: A Review

Managing spoilage and pathogenic bacteria contaminations represents a major challenge for the food industry, especially for the dairy sector. Biofilms formed by these microorganisms in food processing environment continue to pose concerns to food manufacturers as they may impact both the safety and quality of processed foods. Bacteria inside biofilm can survive in harsh environmental conditions and represent a source of repeated food contamination in dairy manufacturing plants. Among the novel approaches proposed to control biofilm in food processing plants, the ozone treatment, in aqueous or gaseous form, may represent one of the most promising techniques due to its antimicrobial action and low environmental impact. The antimicrobial effectiveness of ozone has been well documented on a wide variety of microorganisms in planktonic forms, whereas little data on the efficacy of ozone treatment against microbial biofilms are available. In addition, ozone is recognized as an eco-friendly technology since it does not leave harmful residuals in food products or on contact surfaces. Thus, this review intends to present an overview of the current state of knowledge on the possible use of ozone as an antimicrobial agent against the most common spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms, usually organized in biofilm, in dairy manufacturing plants.

Adaptive Response of Listeria monocytogenes to the Stress Factors in the Food Processing Environment

Listeria monocytogenes are Gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic, non-spore-forming bacteria that easily adapt to changing environmental conditions. The ability to grow at a wide range of temperatures, pH, and salinity determines the presence of the pathogen in water, sewage, soil, decaying vegetation, and animal feed. L. monocytogenes is an etiological factor of listeriosis, especially dangerous for the elderly, pregnant women, and newborns. The major source of L. monocytogenes for humans is food, including fresh and smoked products. Its high prevalence in food is associated with bacterial adaptation to the food processing environment (FPE). Since the number of listeriosis cases has been progressively increasing an efficient eradication of the pathogen from the FPE is crucial. Understanding the mechanisms of bacterial adaptation to environmental stress will significantly contribute to developing novel, effective methods of controlling L. monocytogenes in the food industry.

Low-Level Tolerance to Antibiotic Trimethoprim in QAC-Adapted Subpopulations of Listeria monocytogenes

Between January and July 2021, there were as many as 30 recalls in the U.S. due to potential Listeria monocytogenes contamination from a variety of food products including muffins, kimchi, chicken salad, ready-to-eat chicken, smoked fish, mushrooms, queso fresco cheese, ice cream, turkey sandwiches, squash, and other foods. A contaminated food chain can serve as a potential vehicle for transmitting antibiotic resistant bacteria since there is a slow emergence of multi-drug antibiotic resistance in L. monocytogenes. Biocides are essential for safe food processing, but they may also induce unintended selective pressure at sublethal doses for the expression of antibiotic resistance in L. monocytogenes. To better understand the sources of such slow emergence of antibiotic resistance through biocide residues present in the food environments, we are working on the role of sublethal doses of commonly used biocides in defined broth and water models for understanding L. monocytogenes adaptation. We recently published the development of low-level tolerance to fluoroquinolone antibiotic ciprofloxacin in quaternary ammonium compound (QAC) adapted subpopulations of L. monocytogenes (Microorganisms 9, 1052). Of the six different antibiotics tested to determine heterologous stress adaptation in eight strains of L. monocytogenes, trimethoprim was the second one that exhibited low-level tolerance development after continuous exposure (by three approaches) to sublethal concentrations of QAC against actively growing planktonic cells of L. monocytogenes. When adapted to daily cycles of fixed or gradually increasing sublethal concentrations of QAC, we observed three main findings in eight L. monocytogenes strains against trimethoprim: (a) 3 of the 8 strains exhibited significant increase in short-range minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of trimethoprim by 1.7 to 2.5 fold in QAC-adapted subpopulations compared to non-adapted cells (p < 0.05); (b) 2 of the 8 strains exhibited significant increase in growth rate in trimethoprim (optical density (OD) by 600 nm at 12 h) by 1.4 to 4.8 fold in QAC-adapted subpopulations compared to non-adapted cells (p < 0.05); and (c) 5 of the 8 strains yielded significantly higher survival by 1.3-to-3.1 log CFU/mL in trimethoprim in QAC-adapted subpopulations compared to the non-adapted control (p < 0.05). However, for 3/8 strains of L. monocytogenes, there was no increase in the survival of QAC-adapted subpopulations compared to non-adapted control in trimethoprim. These findings suggest the potential formation of low-level trimethoprim tolerant subpopulations in some L. monocytogenes strains where QAC may be used widely. These experimental models are useful in developing early detection methods for tracking the slow emergence of antibiotic tolerant strains through food chain. Also, these findings are useful in understanding the predisposing conditions leading to slow emergence of antibiotic resistant strains of L. monocytogenes in various food production and food processing environments.

Efficacy of a Next Generation Quaternary Ammonium Chloride Sanitizer on Staphylococcus and Pseudomonas Biofilms and Practical Application in a Food Processing Environment

Foodborne pathogens are known to adhere strongly to surfaces and can form biofilms in food processing facilities; therefore, their potential to contaminate manufactured foods underscores the importance of sanitation. The objectives of this study were to (1) examine the efficacy of a new-generation sanitizer (Decon7) on Staphylococcus and Pseudomonas biofilms, (2) identify biofilm bacteria from workers’ boots in relation to previous sanitizer chemistry, (3) validate the efficacy of Decon7 on biofilm from workers’ boots from an abattoir/food processing environment, and (4) compare the sensitivity of isolated boot biofilm bacteria to new- and early (Bi-Quat)-generation QAC sanitizers. Decon7 was applied at two concentrations (5%, 10%) and was shown to be effective within 1 min of exposure against enhanced biofilms of Staphylococcus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. in 96-well microplates. Decon7 was also used to treat workers’ boots that had accumulated high levels of biofilm bacteria due to ineffective sanitization. Bacteria isolated before enzyme/sanitizer treatment were identified through 16S rRNA PCR and DNA sequencing. All treatments were carried out in triplicate and analyzed by one-way RM-ANOVA or ANOVA using the Holm–Sidak test for pairwise multiple comparisons to determine significant differences (p < 0.05). The data show a significant difference between Decon7 sanitizer treatment and untreated control groups. There was a ~4–5 log reduction in Staphylococcus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. (microplate assay) within the first 1 min of treatment and also a > 3-log reduction in the bacterial population observed in the biofilms from workers’ boots. The new next-generation QAC sanitizers are more effective than prior QAC sanitizers, and enzyme pre-treatment can facilitate biofilm sanitizer penetration on food contact surfaces. The rotation of sanitizer chemistries may prevent the selective retention of chemistry-tolerant microorganisms in processing facilities.

Antibacterial and antibiofilm activity of essential oil of clove against Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella Enteritidis

The antibacterial and antibiofilm activity of essential oil of clove against Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella Enteritidis were investigated. The chemical composition of the oil was characterized by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Stock solution of the essential oil of clove was prepared in 95% (v/v) ethanol (EOC). The antibacterial assays were performed by disk diffusion assay and minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC). The biomass of adhered cells and preformed biofilms after incubation with different concentrations of EOC was assessed by crystal violet. Eugenol was the major bioactive compound of clove essential oil, accounting for 78.85% of the total composition. The MIC values for L. monocytogenes and S. Enteritidis were 0.05 mg/ml and 0.1 mg/ml, respectively. The initial cell adhesion at MIC was inhibited by 61.8% for L. monocytogenes and 49.8% for S. Enteritidis. However, the effect of EOC was less marked on biofilm eradication than on cell adhesion. At MIC and within 1 hour of incubation with the EOC, the preformed biofilms were reduced by 30.2% and 20.3% for L. monocytogenes and S. Enteritidis, respectively. These results suggest that sanitizers based on clove essential oil could be a potential strategy to control biofilms in food-related environments.

Bacterial biofilm formation on stainless steel in the food processing environment and its health implications

Biofilm formation (BF) and production in the food processing industry (FPI) is a continual threat to food safety and quality. Various bacterial pathogens possess the ability to adhere and produce biofilms on stainless steel (SS) in the FPI due to flagella, curli, pili, fimbrial adhesins, extra polymeric substances, and surface proteins. The facilitating environmental conditions (temperature, pressure, variations in climatic conditions), SS properties (surface energy, hydrophobicity, surface roughness, topography), type of raw food materials, pre-processing, and processing conditions play a significant role in the enhancement of bacterial adhesion and favorable condition for BF. Furthermore, biofilm formers can tolerate different sanitizers and cleaning agents due to the constituents, concentration, contact time, bacterial cluster distribution, and composition of bacteria within the biofilm. Also, bacterial biofilms' ability to produce various endotoxins and exotoxins when consumed cause food infections and intoxications with serious health implications. It is thus crucial to understand BF's repercussions and develop effective interventions against these phenomena that make persistent pathogens difficult to remove in the food processing environment.

Detecting Bacterial Biofilms Using Fluorescence Hyperspectral Imaging and Various Discriminant Analyses

Biofilms formed on the surface of agro-food processing facilities can cause food poisoning by providing an environment in which bacteria can be cultured. Therefore, hygiene management through initial detection is important. This study aimed to assess the feasibility of detecting Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Salmonella typhimurium (S. typhimurium) on the surface of food processing facilities by using fluorescence hyperspectral imaging. E. coli and S. typhimurium were cultured on high-density polyethylene and stainless steel coupons, which are the main materials used in food processing facilities. We obtained fluorescence hyperspectral images for the range of 420–730 nm by emitting UV light from a 365 nm UV light source. The images were used to perform discriminant analyses (linear discriminant analysis, k-nearest neighbor analysis, and partial-least squares discriminant analysis) to identify and classify coupons on which bacteria could be cultured. The discriminant performances of specificity and sensitivity for E. coli (1–4 log CFU·cm⁻²) and S. typhimurium (1–6 log CFU·cm⁻²) were over 90% for most machine learning models used, and the highest performances were generally obtained from the k-nearest neighbor (k-NN) model. The application of the learning model to the hyperspectral image confirmed that the biofilm detection was well performed. This result indicates the possibility of rapidly inspecting biofilms using fluorescence hyperspectral images.

Impact of the Resistance Responses to Stress Conditions Encountered in Food and Food Processing Environments on the Virulence and Growth Fitness of Non-Typhoidal Salmonellae

The success of Salmonella as a foodborne pathogen can probably be attributed to two major features: its remarkable genetic diversity and its extraordinary ability to adapt. Salmonella cells can survive in harsh environments, successfully compete for nutrients, and cause disease once inside the host. Furthermore, they are capable of rapidly reprogramming their metabolism, evolving in a short time from a stress-resistance mode to a growth or virulent mode, or even to express stress resistance and virulence factors at the same time if needed, thanks to a complex and fine-tuned regulatory network. It is nevertheless generally acknowledged that the development of stress resistance usually has a fitness cost for bacterial cells and that induction of stress resistance responses to certain agents can trigger changes in Salmonella virulence. In this review, we summarize and discuss current knowledge concerning the effects that the development of resistance responses to stress conditions encountered in food and food processing environments (including acid, osmotic and oxidative stress, starvation, modified atmospheres, detergents and disinfectants, chilling, heat, and non-thermal technologies) exerts on different aspects of the physiology of non-typhoidal Salmonellae, with special emphasis on virulence and growth fitness.

Analysis of Biofilm Formation on the Surface of Organic Mung Bean Seeds, Sprouts and in the Germination Environment

This study aimed to analyse the impact of sanitation methods on the formation of bacterial biofilms after disinfection and during the germination process of mung bean on seeds and in the germination environment. Moreover, the influence of Lactobacillus plantarum 299v on the growth of the tested pathogenic bacteria was evaluated. Three strains of Salmonella and E. coli were used for the study. The colony forming units (CFU), the crystal violet (CV), the LIVE/DEAD and the gram fluorescent staining, the light and the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) methods were used. The tested microorganisms survive in a small number. During germination after disinfection D2 (20 min H₂O at 60 °C, then 15 min in a disinfecting mixture consisting of H₂O, H₂O₂ and CH₃COOH), the biofilms grew most after day 2, but with the DP2 method (D2 + L. plantarum 299v during germination) after the fourth day. Depending on the method used, the second or fourth day could be a time for the introduction of an additional growth-limiting factor. Moreover, despite the use of seed disinfection, their germination environment could be favourable for the development of bacteria and, consequently, the formation of biofilms. The appropriate combination of seed disinfection methods and growth inhibition methods at the germination stage will lead to the complete elimination of the development of unwanted microflora and their biofilms.

Consecutive Treatments with a Multicomponent Sanitizer Inactivate Biofilms Formed by Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella enterica and Remove Biofilm Matrix

ABSTRACT

Many foodborne pathogens, including Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella enterica, can develop biofilms on contact surfaces at meat processing plants. Owing to the high tolerance of the biofilm cells associated with the three-dimensional biofilm structure and the well-expressed bacterial extracellular polymeric substances, it is a real challenge to completely inactivate and remove mature biofilms, as well as further prevent biofilm reoccurrence and pathogen survival. In the present study, we evaluated the effectiveness of consecutive treatments (10 to 120 min per treatment) by repeatedly applying a multicomponent sanitizer, based on a functional mechanism by synergistic combination of hydrogen peroxide and quaternary ammonia compounds, against biofilms formed by E. coli O157:H7 and S. enterica strains. Biofilms on stainless steel surfaces were treated with 2.5, 5, or 10% (recommended working concentration) of the sanitizer applied as a foam or liquid solution. Our results showed that the multicomponent sanitizer significantly (P < 0.05) reduced the amount of viable biofilm cells at all concentrations, as enumerable bacteria were only detected after low-concentration treatments (2.5 or 5%) with short exposure periods (10 or 20 min per treatment). Treatments with high concentrations (5 or 10%) of the sanitizer, multiple consecutive treatments (2 or 3 treatments), and sufficient exposure time (>60 min per treatment) effectively controlled pathogen survival postsanitization. Examination with a scanning electron microscope showed that treatment with the sanitizer at 5% strength significantly dissolved the connecting extracellular polysaccharide matrix and removed the majority of the biofilm matrix. No intact biofilm structure was detected after the 10% sanitizer treatment; instead, scattered individual bacteria with visibly altered cell morphology were observed. The treated bacteria exhibited indented and distorted shapes with shortened cell length and increased surface roughness, indicating severe cell injury and death. Our observations indicated that consecutive treatments with the multicomponent sanitizer was effective in inactivating E. coli O157:H7 and S. enterica biofilms and preventing pathogen reoccurrence.

HIGHLIGHTS

Tolerance of Listeria monocytogenes to biocides used in food processing environments

Listeria monocytogenes is a foodborne pathogen that causes a life-threatening disease in humans known as listeriosis. Contamination of food during processing is the main route of transmission of Listeria monocytogenes. Therefore, biocides play a crucial role in food processing environments as they act as the first line of defense in the prevention and control of L. monocytogenes. Residues of biocides may be present at sublethal concentrations after disinfection. This, unfortunately, subjects L. monocytogenes to selection pressure, giving rise to tolerant strains, which pose a threat to food safety and public health. This review will give a brief description of L. monocytogenes, the clinical manifestation, treatment of listeriosis as well as recently recorded outbreaks. The article will then discuss the current literature on the ability of L. monocytogenes strains to tolerate biocides especially quaternary ammonium compounds as well as the mechanisms of tolerance towards biocides including the activation of efflux pump systems.

All Treatment Parameters Affect Environmental Surface Sanitation Efficacy, but Their Relative Importance Depends on the Microbial Target

Environmental sanitation in food manufacturing plants promotes food safety and product microbial quality. However, the development of experimental models remains a challenge due to the complex nature of commercial cleaning processes, which include spraying water and sanitizer on equipment and structural surfaces within manufacturing space. Although simple in execution, the physical driving forces are difficult to simulate in a controlled laboratory environment. Here, we present a bench-scale bioreactor system which mimics the flow conditions in environmental sanitation programs. We applied computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulations to obtain fluid flow parameters that better approximate and predict industrial outcomes. According to the CFD model, the local wall shear stress achieved on the target surface ranged from 0.015 to 5.00 Pa. Sanitation efficacy on six types of environmental surface materials (hydrophobicity, 57.59 to 88.61°; roughness, 2.2 to 11.9 μm) against two different microbial targets, the bacterial pathogen Listeria monocytogenes and Exophiala species spoilage fungi, were evaluated using the bench-scale bioreactor system. The relative reduction ranged from 0.0 to 0.82 for Exophiala spp., which corresponded to a 0.0 to 2.21 log CFU/coupon reduction, and the relative reduction ranged from 0.0 to 0.93 in L. monocytogenes which corresponded to a 0.0 to 6.19 log CFU/coupon reduction. Although most treatment parameters were considered statistically significant against either L. monocytogenes or Exophiala spp., contact time was ranked as the most important predictor for L. monocytogenes reduction. Shear stress contributed the most to Exophiala spp. removal on stainless steel and Buna-N rubber, while contact time was the most important factor on HDPE (high-density polyethylene), cement, and epoxy.IMPORTANCE Commercial food manufacturers commonly employ a single sanitation program that addresses both bacterial pathogen and fungal spoilage microbiota, despite the fact that the two microbial targets respond differently to various environmental sanitation conditions. Comparison of outcome-based clusters of treatment combinations may facilitate the development of compensatory sanitation regimes where longer contact time or greater force are applied so that lower sanitizer concentrations can be used. Determination of microbiological outcomes related to sanitation program efficacy against a panel of treatment conditions allows food processors to balance tradeoffs between quality and safety with cost and waste stream management, as appropriate for their facility.

Garlic, Onion, and Cinnamon Essential Oil Anti-biofilms' Effect against Listeria monocytogenes

Biofilms represent a serious problem for food industries due to their persistence in processing surfaces, from which they can cause food spoilage or, even worse, lead to foodborne diseases. Microorganisms immersed in biofilms are more resistant to biocides. The search for natural effective alternatives for the prevention and the control of biofilms has increased lately. The aim of this research was to test the antibacterial and the anti-biofilm activities of cinnamon, onion, and garlic essential oils against Listeria monocytogenes. The methodology highlighted first the effect of these essential oils on L. monocytogenes using disc diffusion and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) methods and then on initial cell attachment and six hours preformed biofilms. The inhibition of biofilms was assessed by crystal violet assay. Sulfides were the most abundant compounds present in onion and garlic essential oils, while cinnamaldehyde was predominant in cinnamon essential oil. MIC values were of 0.025 mg mL-1 for onion essential oil and 0.100 mg mL-1 for cinnamon and garlic. Onion essential oil inhibited initial cell attachment by 77% at 0.5 of the MIC dose, while at MIC, cinnamon and garlic essential oils inhibited the initial microbial adhesion completely. All three essential oils completely inhibited initial cell attachment when applied at 2 MIC. On the contrary, preformed biofilms were more resistant, and the inhibition rate ranged from 33% to 78%. In summary, this investigation revealed that the essential oils of garlic, onion, and cinnamon show an effective antibiofilm activity against L. monocytogenes and are promising natural antimicrobial alternatives for food processing facilities.