Influence of Chicken Manure Fertilization on Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria in Soil and the Endophytic Bacteria of Pakchoi

Diversity of antibiotic resistance genes in soils with four different fertilization treatments

Although the enrichment of resistance genes in soil has been explored in recent years, there are still some key questions to be addressed regarding the variation of ARG composition in soil with different fertilization treatments, such as the core ARGs in soil after different fertilization treatments, the correlation between ARGs and bacterial taxa, etc. For soils after different fertilization treatments, the distribution and combination of ARG in three typical fertilization methods (organic fertilizer alone, chemical fertilizer alone, and conventional fertilizer) and non-fertilized soils were investigated in this study using high-throughput fluorescence quantitative PCR (HT-qPCR) technique. The application of organic fertilizers significantly increased the abundance and quantity of ARGs and their subtypes in the soil compared to the non-fertilized soil, where sul1 was the ARGs specific to organic fertilizers alone and in higher abundance. The conventional fertilizer application also showed significant enrichment of ARGs, which indicated that manure addition often had a more decisive effect on ARGs in soil than chemical fertilizers, and three bacteria, Pseudonocardia, Irregularibacter, and Castllaniella, were the key bacteria affecting ARG changes in soil after fertilization. In addition, nutrient factors and heavy metals also affect the distribution of ARGs in soil and are positively correlated. This paper reveals the possible reasons for the increase in the number of total soil ARGs and their relative abundance under different fertilization treatments, which has positive implications for controlling the transmission of ARGs through the soil-human pathway.

Cattle-compost-soil: The transfer of antibiotic resistance in livestock agriculture

Antibiotic resistance is a major global health threat. Agricultural use of antibiotics is considered to be a main contributor to the issue, influencing both animals and humans as defined by the One Health approach. The purpose of the present study was to determine the abundance of antibiotic-resistant bacterial populations and the overall bacterial diversity of cattle farm soils that have been treated with animal manure compost. Soil and manure samples were collected from different sites at Tullimba farm, NSW. Cultures were grown from these samples in the presence of 11 commonly used antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) colonies were identified. Soil and manure bacterial diversity was also determined using 16S ribosomal RNA next-generation sequencing. Results showed that ARB abundance was greatest in fresh manure and significantly lower in composted manure. However, the application of composted manure on paddock soil led to a significant increase in soil ARB abundance. Of the antibiotics tested, the number of ARB in each sample was greatest for antibiotics that inhibited the bacterial cell wall and protein synthesis. Collectively, these results suggest that the transfer of antibiotic resistance from composted animal manure to soil may not be solely mediated through the application of live bacteria and highlight the need for further research into the mechanism of antibiotic resistance transfer.

Resistome profiling reveals transmission dynamics of antimicrobial resistance genes from poultry litter to soil and plant

Poultry farming is a major livelihood in South and Southeast Asian economies where it is undergoing rapid intensification to meet the growing human demand for dietary protein. Intensification of poultry production systems is commonly supported by increased antimicrobial drug use, risking greater selection and dissemination of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs). Transmission of ARGs through food chains is an emerging threat. Here, we investigated transmission of ARGs from chicken (broiler and layer) litter to soil and Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench plants based on field and pot experiments. The results demonstrate ARGs transmission from poultry litter to plant systems under field as well as experimental pot conditions. The most common ARGs could be tracked for transmission from litter to soil to plants were identified as detected were cmx, ErmX, ErmF, lnuB, TEM-98 and TEM-99, while common microorganisms included Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Vibrio cholerae. Using next generation sequencing and digital PCR assays we detected ARGs transmitted from poultry litter in both the roots and stems of S. bicolor (L.) Moench plants. Poultry litter is frequently used as a fertiliser because of its high nitrogen content; our studies show that ARGs can transmit from litter to plants and illustrates the risks posed to the environment by antimicrobial treatment of poultry. This knowledge is useful for formulating intervention strategies that can reduce or prevent ARGs transmission from one value chain to another, improving understanding of impacts on human and environmental health. The research outcome will help in further understanding the transmission and risks posed by ARGs from poultry to environmental and human/animal health.

Performances of antibiotic resistance genes profile upon the action of biochar-activated peroxydisulfate in composting

In this study, the amendment of biochar-activated peroxydisulfate during composting to remove antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) by direct (microbial community succession) and indirect methods (physicochemical factors) was analyzed. When implementing indirect methods, the synergistic effect of peroxydisulfate with biochar optimized the physicochemical habitat of compost, maintaining its moisture within a range of 62.95%-65.71%, and a pH of 6.87-7.73, and causing the compost to mature 18 days earlier than the control groups. The direct methods caused the optimized physicochemical habitat to adjust the microbial communities and reduce the abundance of most of the ARG host bacteria (Thermopolyspora, Thermobifida, and Saccharomonospora), thus inhibiting this substance's amplification. Heatmap analysis confirmed the necessary connection between physicochemical factors, microbial communities, and ARGs. Moreover, a mantel test confirmed the direct significant effect of the microbial communities on ARGs and the indirect significant effect of physicochemical factors on ARGs. The results showed that the abundance of more ARGs was down-regulated at the end of composting and regulated by biochar-activated peroxydisulfate, especially for the abundance of AbaF, tet(44), golS, and mryA, which was significantly decreased by 0.87-1.07 fold. These results provide new insights into the removal of ARGs during composting.

Escherichia coli Isolated from Vegans, Vegetarians and Omnivores: Antibiotic Resistance, Virulence Factors, Pathogenicity Islands and Phylogenetic Classification

Pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli have acquired virulence factors, which confer an increased ability to cause a broad spectrum of enteric diseases and extraintestinal infections. The aim of this study was to analyze the antimicrobial resistance profile of and the presence of virulence-associated genes (VAGs) in E. coli fecal isolates from omnivores, vegetarians and vegans. A control group of 60 isolates from omnivores, as well as a study group with 41 isolates from vegetarians and 17 from vegans, were analyzed. Isolates from both groups showed a high rate of resistance to ampicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid and nalidixic acid, and some of them were positive for the ESBL test (12% of isolates from vegetarians/vegans and 5% of isolates from omnivores). The most predominant VAGs detected in isolates from omnivores were fimH (70%), iutA (32%), fyuA (32%) and traT (32%), while among isolates from vegetarians or vegans, the most predominant were traT (62%), kpsMT k1 (28%) and iutA (22%). Most isolates from omnivores (55%) were positive for PAI I536, while most of those from vegetarians/vegans (59%) were positive for PAI IV536. Phylogenetic group A, composed of commensal non-pathogenic isolates that survive in the intestinal tract, was the most prevalent in both control and study groups. Some VAGs were found in only one of the groups, such as the pathogenicity island PAI III536, found in 12% of the isolates from omnivores, while the kpsMT III gene (15%) was detected only among isolates from vegetarians/vegans. Interestingly, this gene codes for a polysaccharide capsule found mainly in E. coli isolates causing intestinal infections, including EPEC, ETEC and EHEC. Finally, our results show that there were no advantages in vegetarian or vegan diets compared to the omnivorous diet, as in both groups we detected isolates harboring VAGs and displaying resistance to antibiotics, especially those most commonly used to treat urinary tract infections.

Characteristics and Global Occurrence of Human Pathogens Harboring Antimicrobial Resistance in Food Crops: A Scoping Review

Background

The role of the crop environment as a conduit for antimicrobial resistance (AMR) through soil, water, and plants has received less attention than other sectors. Food crops may provide a link between the agro-environmental reservoir of AMR and acquisition by humans, adding to existing food safety hazards associated with microbial contamination of food crops.

Objectives

The objectives of this review were: (1) to use a systematic methodology to characterize AMR in food crop value chains globally, and (2) to identify knowledge gaps in understanding exposure risks to humans.

Methods

Four bibliographic databases were searched using synonyms of AMR in food crop value chains. Following two-stage screening, phenotypic results were extracted and categorized into primary and secondary combinations of acquired resistance in microbes of concern based on established prioritization. Occurrence of these pathogen-AMR phenotype combinations were summarized by sample group, value chain stage, and world region. Sub-analyses on antimicrobial resistance genes (ARG) focused on extended-spectrum beta-lactamase and tetracycline resistance genes.

Results

Screening of 4,455 citations yielded 196 studies originating from 49 countries, predominantly in Asia (89 studies) and Africa (38). Observations of pathogen-phenotype combinations of interest were reported in a subset of 133 studies (68%). Primary combinations, which include resistance to antimicrobials of critical importance to human medicine varied from 3% (carbapenem resistance) to 13% (fluoroquinolones), whereas secondary combinations, which include resistance to antimicrobials also used in agriculture ranged from 14% (aminoglycoside resistance) to 20% (aminopenicillins). Salad crops, vegetables, and culinary herbs were the most sampled crops with almost twice as many studies testing post-harvest samples. Sub-analysis of ARG found similar patterns corresponding to phenotypic results.

Discussion

These results suggest that acquired AMR in opportunistic and obligate human pathogens is disseminated throughout food crop value chains in multiple world regions. However, few longitudinal studies exist and substantial heterogeneity in sampling methods currently limit quantification of exposure risks to consumers. This review highlights the need to include agriculturally-derived AMR in monitoring food safety risks from plant-based foods, and the challenges facing its surveillance.

Key factors driving the fate of antibiotic resistance genes and controlling strategies during aerobic composting of animal manure: A review

Occurrence of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in animal manure impedes the reutilization of manure resources. Aerobic composting is potentially effective method for resource disposal of animal manure, but the fate of ARGs during composting is complicated due to the various material sources and different operating conditions. This review concentrates on the biotic and abiotic factors influencing the variation of ARGs in composting and their potential mechanisms. The dynamic variations of biotic factors, including bacterial community, mobile genetic elements (MGEs) and existence forms of ARGs, are the direct driving factors of the fate of ARGs during composting. However, most key abiotic indicators, including pH, moisture content, antibiotics and heavy metals, interfere with the richness of ARGs indirectly by influencing the succession of bacterial community and abundance of MGEs. The effect of temperature on ARGs depends on whether the ARGs are intracellular or extracellular, which should be paid more attention. The emergence of various controlling strategies renders the composting products safer. Four potential removal mechanisms of ARGs in different controlling strategies have been concluded, encompassing the attenuation of selective/co-selective pressure on ARGs, killing the potential host bacteria of ARGs, reshaping the structure of bacterial community and reducing the cell-to-cell contact of bacteria. With the effective control of ARGs, aerobic composting is suggested to be a sustainable and promising approach to treat animal manure.

Aerobic Composting and Anaerobic Digestion Decrease the Copy Numbers of Antibiotic-Resistant Genes and the Levels of Lactose-Degrading Enterobacteriaceae in Dairy Farms in Hokkaido, Japan

Efficient methods for decreasing the spread of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) and transfer of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria (ARB) from livestock manure to humans are urgently needed. Aerobic composting (AC) or anaerobic digestion (AD) are widely used for manure treatment in Japanese dairy farms. To clarify the effects of AC and AD on antimicrobial resistance, the abundances of antimicrobial (tetracycline and cefazolin)-resistant lactose-degrading Enterobacteriaceae as indicator bacteria, copy numbers of ARGs (tetracycline resistance genes and β-lactamase coding genes), and concentrations of residual antimicrobials in dairy cow manure were determined before and after treatment. The concentration of tetracycline/cefazolin-resistant lactose-degrading Enterobacteriaceae was decreased over 1,000-fold by both AC and AD. ARGs such as tetA, tetB, and bla TEM were frequently detected and their copy numbers were significantly reduced by ∼1,000-fold by AD but not by AC. However, several ARG copies remained even after AD treatment. Although concentrations of the majority of residual antimicrobials were decreased by both AC and AD, oxytetracycline level was not decreased after treatment in most cases. In addition, 16S rRNA gene amplicon-based metagenomic analysis revealed that both treatments changed the bacterial community structure. These results suggest that both AC and AD could suppress the transmission of ARB, and AD could reduce ARG copy numbers in dairy cow manure.

Animal manures application increases the abundances of antibiotic resistance genes in soil-lettuce system associated with shared bacterial distributions

An increasing amount of animal manures is being used in agriculture, and the effect of animal manures application on the abundance of antibiotics resistance genes (ARGs) in soil-plant system has attracted widespread attention. However, the impacts of animal manures application on the various types of bacterial distribution that occur in soil-lettuce system are unclear. To address this topic, the effects of poultry manure, swine manure or chemical fertilizer application on ARG abundance and the distribution of shared bacteria were investigated in this study. In a lettuce pot experiment, 13 ARGs and 2 MGEs were quantified by qPCR, and bacterial communities in the soil, lettuce endosphere and lettuce phyllosphere were analysed by 16S rRNA sequence analysis. The results showed that the application of poultry or swine manure significantly increased ARG abundance in the soil, a result attributed mainly to increases in the abundances of tetG and tetC. The application of poultry manure, swine manure and chemical fertilizer significantly increased ARG abundance in the lettuce endosphere, and tetG abundance was significantly increased in the poultry and swine manure groups. However, animal manures application did not significantly increase ARG abundance in the lettuce phyllosphere. Flavobacteriaceae, Sphingomonadaceae and 11 other bacterial families were the shared bacteria in the soil, lettuce endosphere, and phyllosphere. The Streptomycetaceae and Methylobacteriaceae were significantly positively correlated with intI1 in both the soil and endosphere. Chemical fertilizer application increased both the proportions of Sphingomonadaceae and tetX abundance, which were positively correlated in the endosphere. Comamonadaceae and Flavobacteriaceae were not detected in the lettuce endosphere under swine manure application. Cu was related to Flavobacteriaceae in the lettuce endosphere. Overall, poultry and swine manure application significantly increased ARG abundance in the soil-lettuce system, which might be due to the shared bacterial distribution.

Concentrations, Size Distribution, and Community Structure Characteristics of Culturable Airborne Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria in Xinxiang, Central China

Antimicrobial resistance is considered an important threat to global health and has recently attracted significant attention from the public. In this study, the concentrations and size distribution characteristics of culturable airborne total bacteria (TB) and four antibiotic-resistant bacteria (tetracycline-resistant bacteria (TRB), ciprofloxacin-resistant bacteria (CRB), erythromycin-resistant bacteria (ERB), and ampicillin-resistant bacteria (ARB)) were investigated for approximately one year to explore their variations under different seasons, diurnal periods, and air quality levels. The concentrations of TB and four antibiotic-resistant bacteria in winter and night were higher than during other seasons and diurnal periods. Their maximum concentrations were detected from air under moderate pollution or heavy pollution. PM2.5, PM10, SO2, and NO2 were positively related to TB and four antibiotic-resistant bacteria (p < 0.01), whereas O3 and wind speed were negatively related to them (p < 0.05). The particle size of TB and four antibiotic-resistant bacteria were mainly distributed in stage V (1.1–2.2 µm). Bacillus was the dominant genus of ARB (75.97%) and CRB (25.67%). Staphylococcus and Macrococcus were the dominant genera of TRB (46.05%) and ERB (47.67%), respectively. The opportunistic pathogens of Micrococcus, Sphingomonas, Enterococcus, Rhodococcus, and Stenotrophomonas were also identified. This study provides important references for understanding the threat of bioaerosols to human health.

Rethinking Manure Application: Increase in Multidrug-Resistant Enterococcus spp. in Agricultural Soil Following Chicken Litter Application

The current study investigated the impact of chicken litter application on the abundance of multidrug-resistant Enterococcus spp. in agricultural soil. Soil samples were collected from five different strategic places on a sugarcane farm before and after manure application for four months. Chicken litter samples were also collected. Enterococci were enumerated using the Enterolert^®/Quanti-Tray 2000^® system and confirm and differentiated into species using real-time PCR. The antibiotic susceptibility profile of the isolates was determined using the disk diffusion method following the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) guidelines. The overall mean bacterial count was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in manure-amended soil (3.87 × 10⁷ MPN/g) than unamended soil (2.89 × 10⁷ MPN/g). Eight hundred and thirty-five enterococci (680 from soil and 155 from litter) were isolated, with E. casseliflavus being the most prevalent species (469; 56.2%) and E. gallinarum being the least (16; 1.2%). Approximately 56% of all the isolates were resistant to at least one antibiotic tested, with the highest resistance observed against tetracycline (33%) and the lowest against chloramphenicol (0.1%); 17% of E. faecium were resistant to quinupristin-dalfopristin. Additionally, 27.9% (130/466) of the isolates were multidrug-resistant, with litter-amended soil harbouring more multidrug-resistant (MDR) isolates (67.7%; 88/130) than unamended soil (10.0%; 13/130). All isolates were susceptible to tigecycline, linezolid and gentamicin. About 7% of the isolates had a multiple antimicrobial resistance index > 0.2, indicative of high antibiotic exposure. Although organic fertilizers are regarded as eco-friendly compared to chemical fertilizers for improving soil fertility, the application of untreated animal manure could promote the accumulation of antibiotics and their residues and antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the soil, creating an environmental reservoir of antimicrobial resistance, with potential human and environmental health risks.

Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Animal Manure - Consequences of Its Application in Agriculture

Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) are a relatively new type of pollutant. The rise in antibiotic resistance observed recently is closely correlated with the uncontrolled and widespread use of antibiotics in agriculture and the treatment of humans and animals. Resistant bacteria have been identified in soil, animal feces, animal housing (e.g., pens, barns, or pastures), the areas around farms, manure storage facilities, and the guts of farm animals. The selection pressure caused by the irrational use of antibiotics in animal production sectors not only promotes the survival of existing antibiotic-resistant bacteria but also the development of new resistant forms. One of the most critical hot-spots related to the development and dissemination of ARGs is livestock and poultry production. Manure is widely used as a fertilizer thanks to its rich nutrient and organic matter content. However, research indicates that its application may pose a severe threat to human and animal health by facilitating the dissemination of ARGs to arable soil and edible crops. This review examines the pathogens, potentially pathogenic microorganisms and ARGs which may be found in animal manure, and evaluates their effect on human health through their exposure to soil and plant resistomes. It takes a broader view than previous studies of this topic, discussing recent data on antibiotic use in farm animals and the effect of these practices on the composition of animal manure; it also examines how fertilization with animal manure may alter soil and crop microbiomes, and proposes the drivers of such changes and their consequences for human health.

Treated wastewater irrigation promotes the spread of antibiotic resistance into subsoil pore-water

In the present study, we investigated the impact of treated wastewater (TWW) irrigation on the prevalence of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in subsoil pore-water, a so-far under-appreciated matrix. We hypothesized that TWW irrigation increases ARG prevalence in subsoil pore-water. This hypothesis was tested using a multiphase approach, which consisted of sampling percolated subsoil pore-water from lysimeter-wells of a real-scale TWW-irrigated field, operated for commercial farming practices, and controlled, laboratory microcosms irrigated with freshwater or TWW. We monitored the abundance of six selected ARGs (sul1, bla_OXA-58, tetM, qnrS, bla_CTX-M-32 and bla_TEM), the intI1 gene associated with mobile genetic elements and an indicator for anthropogenic pollution and bacterial abundance (16S rRNA gene) by qPCR. The bacterial load of subsoil pore water was independent of both, irrigation intensity in the field study and irrigation water type in the microcosms. Among the tested genes in the field study, sul1 and intI1 exhibited constantly higher relative abundances. Their abundance was further positively correlated with increasing irrigation intensity. Controlled microcosm experiments verified the observed field study results: the relative abundance of several genes, including sul1 and intI1, increased significantly when irrigating with TWW compared to freshwater irrigation. Overall, TWW irrigation promoted the spread of ARGs and intI1 in the subsoil pore-water, while the bacterial load was maintained. The combined results from the real-scale agricultural field and the controlled lab microcosms indicate that the dissemination of ARGs in various subsurface environments needs to be taken into account during TWW irrigation scenarios.

Longitudinal monitoring of multidrug resistance in Escherichia coli on broiler chicken fattening farms in Shandong, China

The extensive use of antibiotics has, in recent years, caused antimicrobial resistance and multidrug resistance in Escherichia coli to gradually develop into a worldwide problem. These resistant E. coli could be transmitted to humans through animal products and animal feces in the environment, thereby creating a problem for bacterial treatment for humans and animals and resulting in a public health issue. Monitoring the resistance of E. coli throughout the broiler fattening period is therefore of great significance for both the poultry industry and public health. In this longitudinal study, samples were taken from 6 conventional broiler fattening farms in Shandong Province, China, at 3 different times within 1 fattening period. The overall isolation rate of E. coli was 53.04% (375/707). Antibiotic resistance was very common in the E. coli isolated from these farms, and differed for different antibiotics, with ampicillin having the highest rate (92.86%) and cefoxitin the lowest (10.12%). Multidrug resistance was as high as 91.07%. More importantly, both the resistance rate of E. coli to the different drugs and the detection rate of drug resistance genes increased over time. The mobile colistin resistance (mcr-1) gene was detected in 24.40% of the strains, and these strains often carried other drug resistance genes, such as those conferring aminoglycoside, β-lactamase, tetracycline, and sulfonamide resistance. Antimicrobial resistance and drug resistance genes in E. coli were least common in the early fattening stage. The individual detection rates of sul1, sul3, aacC4, aphA3, and mcr-1 were significantly lower (P < 0.05) for the early fattening stage than for the middle and late stages. The rational use of antibiotics, in conjunction with the improvement of the breeding environment during the entire broiler fattening cycle, will be helpful in the development of the poultry industry and the protection of public health.

Microbial Communities in Soils and Endosphere of Solanum tuberosum L. and their Response to Long-Term Fertilization

An understanding of how fertilization influences endophytes is crucial for sustainable agriculture, since the manipulation of the plant microbiome could affect plant fitness and productivity. This study was focused on the response of microbial communities in the soil and tubers to the regular application of manure (MF; 330 kg N/ha), sewage sludge (SF; 330 and SF3x; 990 kg N/ha), and chemical fertilizer (NPK; 330-90-300 kg N-P-K/ha). Unfertilized soil was used as a control (CF), and the experiment was set up at two distinct sites. All fertilization treatments significantly altered the prokaryotic and fungal communities in soil, whereas the influence of fertilization on the community of endophytes differed for each site. At the site with cambisol, prokaryotic and fungal endophytes were significantly shifted by MF and SF3 treatments. At the site with chernozem, neither the prokaryotic nor fungal endophytic communities were significantly associated with fertilization treatments. Fertilization significantly increased the relative abundance of the plant-beneficial bacteria Stenotrophomonas, Sphingomonas and the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. In tubers, the relative abundance of Fusarium was lower in MF-treated soil compared to CF. Although fertilization treatments clearly influenced the soil and endophytic community structure, we did not find any indication of human pathogens being transmitted into tubers via organic fertilizers.

Enterobacteriaceae predominate in the endophytic microbiome and contribute to the resistome of strawberry

Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) harbored by plant microbiomes have been implicated as a potential risk to public health via food chain, especially directly edible fruits and vegetables. Here, we investigated the microbiome and antibiotic resistome in soil-strawberry ecosystem using shotgun metagenomic sequencing. The results showed that the enterobacterial population dominated the endophytes of strawberry fruits. Moreover, 85 subtypes of ARGs, including several clinically important ARGs, were detected in the strawberry fruit metagenomes. Additionally, host tracking analysis in combination with antibiotic-resistant bacterial isolate screening suggested that fruit-borne ARGs were mainly carried by members of the Enterobacteriaceae family. Unexpectedly, most of fruit-borne isolates were found to be resistant to several clinically important antimicrobials, e.g., erythromycin and cephalexin. Our findings provide broad insights into endophytic antibiotic resistomes of direct edible strawberry fruits and their potential hosts, and highlight the potential exposure risks of plant microbiomes to the human food chain.

Effect of the veterinary ionophore monensin on the structure and activity of a tropical soil bacterial community

Monensin (MON) is a coccidiostat used as a growth promoter that can reach the environment through fertilization with manure from farm animals. To verify whether field-relevant concentrations of this drug negatively influence the structure and activity of tropical soil bacteria, plate counts, CO₂ efflux measurements, phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) and community-level physiological profiling (CLPP) profiles were obtained for soil microcosms exposed to 1 or 10 mg kg^-1 of MON across 11 days. Although 53% (1 mg kg^-1) to 40% (10 mg kg^-1) of the MON concentrations added to the microcosms dissipated within 5 days, a subtle concentration-dependent decrease in the number of culturable bacteria (<1 log CFU g^-1), reduced (-20 to -30%) or exacerbated (+25%) soil CO₂ effluxes, a marked shift of non-bacterial fatty acids, and altered respiration of amines (1.22-fold decrease) and polymers (1.70-fold increase) were noted in some of the treatments. These results suggest that MON quickly killed some microorganisms and that the surviving populations were selected and metabolically stimulated. Consequently, MON should be monitored in agronomic and environmental systems as part of One Health efforts.

Diversity of tetracycline- and erythromycin-resistant bacteria in aerosols and manures from four types of animal farms in China

Confined animal feeding operations generate high levels of airborne antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including pathogenic strains that may pollute the local environment or pose a health risk to both animals and workers. However, the communities of airborne antibiotic-resistant bacteria in such operations are not fully understood, especially in fine particles that penetrate deeply into the respiratory system. To address these gaps, manures and aerosols from inside and outside of animal houses were collected, and the characteristics of antibiotic-resistant bacteria were analyzed using Illumina MiSeq sequencing to amplify the V3-V4 region of bacterial 16S rRNA. The results indicated that animal species was the main factor that influenced the bacterial community of both manure and aerosol samples, while antibiotic selection was the major factor that influenced the bacterial community of aerosol samples from the inside of animal houses. An obvious clustering difference was detected between manure and aerosol samples. No significant difference in both alpha- and beta-diversity indices was detected between fine and coarse particles. As a key genus, Staphylococcus was found to drive the difference in the bacterial community of tetracycline-resistant bacteria to total culturable bacteria and erythromycin-resistant bacteria and also the difference in the bacterial community from aerosol to manure samples. Current data would help in evaluating the risk to human and livestock health and tracing the source of airborne antibiotic-resistant bacteria in animal farms.

Unraveling the Role of Vegetables in Spreading Antimicrobial-Resistant Bacteria: A Need for Quantitative Risk Assessment

In recent years, vegetables gain consumer attraction due to their reputation of being healthy in combination with low energy density. However, since fresh produce is often eaten raw, it may also be a source for foodborne illness. The presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria might pose a particular risk to the consumer. Therefore, this review aims to present the current state of knowledge concerning the exposure of humans to antibiotic-resistant bacteria via food of plant origin for quantitative risk assessment purposes. The review provides a critical overview of available information on hazard identification and characterization, exposure assessment, and risk prevention with special respect to potential sources of contamination and infection chains. Several comprehensive studies are accessible regarding major antimicrobial-resistant foodborne pathogens (e.g., Salmonella spp., Listeria spp., Bacillus cereus, Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli) and other bacteria (e.g., further Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas spp., Gram-positive cocci). These studies revealed vegetables to be a potential—although rare—vector for extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae, mcr1-positive E. coli, colistin- and carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa, linezolid-resistant enterococci and staphylococci, and vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Even if this provides first clues for assessing the risk related to vegetable-borne antimicrobial-resistant bacteria, the literature research reveals important knowledge gaps affecting almost every part of risk assessment and management. Especially, the need for (comparable) quantitative data as well as data on possible contamination sources other than irrigation water, organic fertilizer, and soil becomes obvious. Most crucially, dose–response studies would be needed to convert a theoretical “risk” (e.g., related to antimicrobial-resistant commensals and opportunistic pathogens) into a quantitative risk estimate.

Effects of passivators on antibiotic resistance genes and related mechanisms during composting of copper-enriched pig manure

Due to the intensive use of feed additives in livestock farming, animal manure has become a hotspot for antibiotics, heavy metals, and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Unlike antibiotics, heavy metals cannot be degraded during composting and thus could pose a persistent co-selective pressure in the proliferation of antibiotic resistance. Passivators are commonly applied to immobilize metals and improve the safety of compost. However, little is known about the effects of various passivators on ARGs and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) during composting and the underlying mechanisms involved. Thus, three typical passivators (biochar, fly ash, and zeolite) were applied during the composting of copper-enriched pig manure, and their effects on ARGs, copper resistance genes, MGEs, and the bacterial communities were examined. Compared to the control, all passivator treatments reduced the abundances of at least six ARGs (tetC, tetG, tetQ, tetX, sul1, and ermB) by 0.23-1.09 logs and of two MGEs (intI1 and ISCR1) by 26-85% after composting. Biochar and fly ash also significantly reduced the abundances of intI2 and Tn914/1545. In contrast, abundances of copper resistance genes were not reduced by passivators, implying that the decreased co-selective pressure may not be a major contributor to ARG reductions in this study. Procrustes analysis and redundancy analysis demonstrated that shifts in the bacterial community determined the changes in the abundances of ARGs, and the variation in MGEs and DTPA-Cu can also partially explain the ARG variance. Overall, all of three passivators can be used to reduce the health risks associated with ARGs in livestock manure, and biochar performed the best at reducing ARGs and MGEs.

Integrated Effects of Co-Inoculation with Phosphate-Solubilizing Bacteria and N2-Fixing Bacteria on Microbial Population and Soil Amendment Under C Deficiency

The inoculation of beneficial microorganisms to improve plant growth and soil properties is a promising strategy in the soil amendment. However, the effects of co-inoculation with phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) and N₂-fixing bacteria (NFB) on the soil properties of typical C-deficient soil remain unclear. Based on a controlled experiment and a pot experiment, we examined the effects of PSB (M: Bacillus megaterium and F: Pseudomonas fluorescens), NFB (C: Azotobacter chroococcum and B: Azospirillum brasilence), and combined PSB and NFB treatments on C, N, P availability, and enzyme activities in sterilized soil, as well as the growth of Cyclocarya Paliurus seedlings grow in unsterilized soil. During a 60-day culture, prominent increases in soil inorganic N and available P contents were detected after bacteria additions. Three patterns were observed for different additions according to the dynamic bacterial growth. Synergistic effects between NFB and PSB were obvious, co-inoculations with NFB enhanced the accumulation of available P. However, decreases in soil available P and N were observed on the 60th day, which was induced by the decreases in bacterial quantities under C deficiency. Besides, co-inoculations with PSB and NFB resulted in greater performance in plant growth promotion. Aimed at amending soil with a C supply shortage, combined PSB and NFB treatments are more appropriate for practical fertilization at intervals of 30–45 days. The results demonstrate that co-inoculations could have synergistic interactions during culture and application, which may help with understanding the possible mechanism of soil amendment driven by microorganisms under C deficiency, thereby providing an alternative option for amending such soil.

Prevalence of Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Multidrug-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae on Portuguese Livestock Manure

The exposure of both crop fields and humans to antibiotic-resistant bacteria in animal excreta is an emergent concern of the One Health initiative. This study assessed the contamination of livestock manure from poultry, pig, dairy farms and slaughterhouses in Portugal with resistance determinants. The resistance profiles of 331 Enterobacteriaceae isolates to eight β-lactam (amoxicillin, cefoxitin, cefotaxime, cefpirome, aztreonam, ceftazidime, imipenem and meropenem) and to five non-β-lactam antibiotics (tetracycline (TET), trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (SXT), ciprofloxacin (CIP), chloramphenicol (CHL) and gentamicin) was investigated. Forty-nine integron and non-β-lactam resistance genes were also screened for. Rates of resistance to the 13 antibiotics ranged from 80.8% to 0.6%. Multidrug resistance (MDR) rates were highest in pig farm samples (79%). Thirty different integron and resistance genes were identified. These were mainly associated with resistance to CHL (catI and catII), CIP (mainly, qnrS, qnrB and oqx), TET (mainly tet(A) and tet(M)) and SXT (mostly dfrIa group and sul3). In MDR isolates, integron presence and non-β-lactam resistance to TET, SXT and CHL were positively correlated. Overall, a high prevalence of MDR Enterobacteriaceae was found in livestock manure. The high gene diversity for antibiotic resistance identified in this study highlights the risk of MDR spread within the environment through manure use.

Impact of disinfectant on bacterial antibiotic resistance transfer between biofilm and tap water in a simulated distribution network

Bacterial antibiotic resistance (BAR) is profoundly important to human health, but the environmental reservoirs of resistance determinants are poorly understood. BAR of biofilm and tap water were analyzed by using a water distribution simulator where different doses of chlorine and chloramine were used in this study. The results revealed that the disinfectants (≥2 mg/L) suppressed antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) in tap water and biofilms, while disinfected water and biofilms had a high relative abundance of ARB. The difference of ARB concentration and ARB percentage between the samples obtained from a disinfected pipeline and a non-disinfected pipeline became smaller over time. Because the water supply system is a unidirectional process, it is unclear how planktonic bacteria in water transfer BAR over time, although biofilm is suspected to play a role in this process. Compared with the biofilm samples without disinfectant, the disinfected biofilm had lower ICC and HPC/ICC percentage, lower AOC and AOC/TOC percentage, indicating that the disinfectant inhibited the bacteria growth in biofilm, and the disinfected biofilm had high proportion of non-culturable bacteria and low biodegradability, which affected BAR in biofilms. High throughput sequencing showed that in biofilms, the relative abundance of genera (uncultured_f_Rhodocyclaceae, Brevundimonas, and Brevibacillus in chlorinated systems, and Brevundimonas, Brevibacillus in chloraminated systems) with multiple antibiotic resistance and high abundance (up to 78.5%), were positively associated with disinfectant concentration and ARB percentage. The major prevalent genera in biofilms were also detected in tap water, suggesting that biofilm growth or biofilm detachment caused by external environmental factors will allow the movement of biofilm clusters with higher ARB concentration and percentage into bulk water, thereby increasing the antibiotic resistance of bacteria in tap water.

Assessment of Three Antimicrobial Residue Concentrations in Broiler Chicken Droppings as a Potential Risk Factor for Public Health and Environment

Tetracyclines, sulfonamides and amphenicols are broad spectrum antimicrobial drugs that are widely used in poultry farming. However, a high proportion of these drugs can be excreted at high concentrations in droppings, even after the end of a therapy course. This work intended to assess and compare concentrations of florfenicol (FF), florfenicol amine (FFa), chlortetracycline (CTC), 4-epi-chlortetracycline (4-epi-CTC), and sulfachloropyridazine (SCP) in broiler chicken droppings. To this end, 70 chickens were housed under controlled environmental conditions, and assigned to experimental groups that were treated with therapeutic doses of either 10% FF, 20% CTC, or 10% SCP. Consequently, we implemented and designed an in-house validation for three analytical methodologies, which allowed us to quantify the concentrations of these three antimicrobial drugs using liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Our results showed that FF and FFa concentrations were detected in chicken droppings up to day 10 after ceasing treatment, while CTC and 4-epi-CTC were detected up to day 25. As for SCP residues, these were detected up to day 21. Noticeably, CTC showed the longest excretion period, as well as the highest concentrations detected after the end of its administration using therapeutic doses.

Dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes and human pathogenic bacteria from a pig feedlot to the surrounding stream and agricultural soils

The dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), human pathogenic bacteria (HPB), and antibiotic-resistant HPB (ARHPB) from animal feedlot to nearby environment poses a potentially high risk to environmental ecology and public health. Here, a metagenomic analysis was employed to explore the dissemination of ARGs, HPB, and ARHPB from a pig feedlot to surrounding stream and agricultural soils. In total, not detectable (ND)-1,628.4 μg/kg of antibiotic residues, 18 types of ARGs, 48 HPB species, and 216 ARB isolates were detected in all samples. Antibiotic residues from pig feedlot mainly migrated into stream sediments and greenhouse soil. The dominant ARGs and HPB species from pig feedlot spread into stream sediments (tetracycline resistance genes, Clostridium difficile, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis), stream water (multidrug resistance (MDR) genes, Shigella flexneri, and Bordetella pertussis), and greenhouse soil (MDR genes, Bacillus anthracis, and Brucella melitensis). It is concerning that 54.4% of 216 ARB isolates from all samples were potential ARHPB species, and genome sequencing and functional annotation of 4 MDR HPB isolates showed 9 ARG types. Our findings revealed the potential migration and dissemination of antibiotic residues, ARGs, HPB, and ARHPB from pig feedlot to surrounding stream and agricultural soils via pig sewage discharge and manure fertilization.

Assessing the Linkages between Knowledge and Use of Veterinary Antibiotics by Pig Farmers in Rural China

Improper use of veterinary antibiotics (VAs) has led to antibiotic resistance and food safety issues that are harmful for sustainable development and public health. In this study, farmers' knowledge influencing their usage of veterinary antibiotics was analyzed based on a survey of 654 pig farmers in Funing County, China. A behavior probability model was constructed, and a Matlab simulation was used to evaluate the dynamic changes in farmers' behavioral choice regarding VAs use. The survey results showed that the 654 pig farmers' knowledge of VAs were relatively poor, along with a high occurrence of improper behavior. Specifically, 68.35% of the 654 surveyed pig farmers admitted their violation of VAs use regulations, while 55.50% among them overused and 24.31% among them misused VAs. The simulation results showed that the probability of improper VA use decreased with the increase in farmers' knowledge about VA use specification, and when farmers' knowledge about the hazards of VA residues increased. However, when farmers had a high level of knowledge about relevant laws and their penalties, there was still a high probability of improper VA use.

Determination of Chlortetracycline Residues, Antimicrobial Activity and Presence of Resistance Genes in Droppings of Experimentally Treated Broiler Chickens

Tetracyclines are important antimicrobial drugs for poultry farming that are actively excreted via feces and urine. Droppings are one of the main components in broiler bedding, which is commonly used as an organic fertilizer. Therefore, bedding becomes an unintended carrier of antimicrobial residues into the environment and may pose a highly significant threat to public health. For this depletion study, 60 broiler chickens were treated with 20% chlortetracycline (CTC) under therapeutic conditions. Concentrations of CTC and 4-epi-CTC were then determined in their droppings. Additionally, this work also aimed to detect the antimicrobial activity of these droppings and the phenotypic susceptibility to tetracycline in E. coli isolates, as well as the presence of tet(A), tet(B), and tet(G) resistance genes. CTC and 4-epi-CTC concentrations that were found ranged from 179.5 to 665.8 µg/kg. Based on these data, the depletion time for chicken droppings was calculated and set at 69 days. All samples presented antimicrobial activity, and a resistance to tetracyclines was found in bacterial strains that were isolated from these samples. Resistance genes tet(A) and tet(B) were also found in these samples.

Impact of direct application of biogas slurry and residue in fields: In situ analysis of antibiotic resistance genes from pig manure to fields

Biogas slurry and residue contaminated with antibiotics are widely used as fertilizers in vegetable crop planting. However, their impact on the spreading of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in vegetable fields is still largely unknown. In the present study, antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB), ARGs and bacterial communities from pig manure to fields were monitored by using viable plate counts, high-throughput fluorescent quantitative PCR (HT-qPCR) and Illumina MiSeq sequencing. Eighty-three ARGs and 3 transposons genes were detected. Anaerobic digestion reduced relative abundance of tetracycline and Macrolide-Lincosamide-Streptogramin (MLSB) resistance genes. However, the number of ARB and the relative abundance of sulfa, aminoglycoside and florfenicol, chloramphenicol, and amphenicol (FCA) resistance genes, respectively, enriched up to 270 times and 52 times in biogas residue. Long-term application of biogas slurry and residue contaminated with antibiotics in fields increased the rate of ARB as well as relative abundance of ARGs and transposons genes. Additionally, bacterial communities significantly differed between the soil treated with biogas slurry and residue and the control sample, especially the phyla Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria. Based on network analysis, 19 genera were identified as possible hosts of the detected ARGs. Our results provide an important significance for reasonable application of biogas slurry and residue.

Potential of saprophage Diptera to acquire culturable livestock-associated antibiotic-resistant bacteria

The increasing prevalence of antibiotic resistance among bacteria is one of the most intractable challenges in 21st-century public health. Dipterans that associate with livestock, livestock waste products and cadavers have the potential to acquire livestock-associated antibiotic-resistant bacteria (LA-ARB) and transmit them to humans. In this study, piglet cadavers were used to attract saprophage dipterans from the environment and those dipterans were sampled for the presence of LA-ARB. In the first trial, culturable microbes resistant to both aminoglycoside and β-lactam antibiotics were found in all cadavers and masses of dipteran larvae, and in three-quarters of adult dipterans. In the second trial, over 130 culturable bacterial colonies resistant to β-lactams were isolated from the cadavers, larval and adult dipterans. Over 100 of those colonies were coliform or metabolically similar bacteria. Adult dipterans carried β-lactam resistant staphylococci, whereas those bacterial types were absent from larval dipterans and cadavers, suggesting they were picked up from elsewhere in the environment. This research indicates that LA-ARB are ubiquitous in pig farms, and dipterans have the potential to carry medically important microbes. Further research is encouraged to determine the extent to which dipterans acquire microbes from animal agriculture relative to other environments.

Plant Growth, Antibiotic Uptake, and Prevalence of Antibiotic Resistance in an Endophytic System of Pakchoi under Antibiotic Exposure

Antibiotic contamination in agroecosystems may cause serious problems, such as the proliferation of various antibiotic resistant bacteria and the spreading of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in the environment or even to human beings. However, it is unclear whether environmental antibiotics, antibiotic resistant bacteria, and ARGs can directly enter into, or occur in, the endophytic systems of plants exposed to pollutants. In this study, a hydroponic experiment exposing pakchoi (Brassica chinensis L.) to tetracycline, cephalexin, and sulfamethoxazole at 50% minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) levels and MIC levels, respectively, was conducted to explore plant growth, antibiotic uptake, and the development of antibiotic resistance in endophytic systems. The three antibiotics promoted pakchoi growth at 50% MIC values. Target antibiotics at concentrations ranging from 6.9 to 48.1 µg·kg⁻¹ were detected in the treated vegetables. Additionally, the rates of antibiotic-resistant endophytic bacteria to total cultivable endophytic bacteria significantly increased as the antibiotics accumulated in the plants. The detection and quantification of ARGs indicated that four types, tetX, bla_CTX-M, and sul1 and sul2, which correspond to tetracycline, cephalexin, and sulfamethoxazole resistance, respectively, were present in the pakchoi endophytic system and increased with the antibiotic concentrations. The results highlight a potential risk of the development and spread of antibiotic resistance in vegetable endophytic systems.