Occurrence, Ecological and Human Health Risks, and Seasonal Variations of Phenolic Compounds in Surface Water and Sediment of a Potential Polluted River Basin in China

Impact of total phenolic compounds on ecological and health risks of water and sediments from Timsah Lake, Suez Canal, Egypt

This study aimed to measure spatial and temporal distributions of total phenolic compounds and their ecological and health hazards using UV-vis spectrophotometers as a low-cost, fast, simple method in water and sediments collected from Timsah Lake, Suez Canal, Egypt, 2022. Also, assessing highly adaptive fungal species associated with contamination is designed. Due to human and environmental activities and industrial waste discharges, Timsah Lake is increasingly threatened by all kinds of pollutants. The results indicated that the seasonal concentration means of the phenolic compounds were winter (0.229) > spring (0.161) > summer (0.124) > autumn (0.131) mg/l and winter (3.08) > summer (2.66) mg/g in water and sediment samples, respectively. The result has shown that the phenol concentrations in all stations were more than 0.005 and 0.1 mg/l for Egyptian National Standards and World Health Organization (WHO) for drinking water but less than the limits of 1 mg/l for wastewater. Notably, the fungi recorded the highest counts during spring, totaling 397 colonies/100 ml of water and 842 colonies/gram of sediment. Four isolates of fungi were identified and deposited in the GenBank database by Aspergillus terreus, Aspergillus terreus, Penicillium roqueforti, and Penicillium rubens under accession numbers OR401933, OR402837, OR402878, and OR424729, respectively. Moreover, ecological risk (RQ) for the total phenolic compounds was > 1 in all investigated stations for water and sediments. The hazard quotient is HQ < 1 in all seasons in water and sediments except winter. The hazard index (HI) in water and sediments for children is higher than for adults. It can be concluded that the low-cost, fast, simple method for determining phenolic content in water and sediment samples, using UV-vis spectrophotometry, was useful for predicting the reactivates of a wide variety of phenol and their derivatives. Furthermore, it can be concluded that Periodic assessments of water quality and strict regulations are necessary to safeguard this vital resource from pollution and ensure the well-being of future generations. Finally, policymakers and water treatment specialists might use the information from this research to reduce these chemical pollutants in Egypt.

Occurrence of pentachlorophenol in surface water from the upper to lower reaches of the Yangtze River and treated water in Wuhan, China

Pentachlorophenol (PCP), a persistent organic pollutant, has been banned in many countries, but it is still used in China as a wood preservative, molluscicide, or reagent for fish-pond cleaning, which may pose risks to the ecosystem and humans. However, data on the occurrence of PCP in the environment are scarce in the recent decade. The Yangtze River was regarded as a priority area of PCP pollution according to previous documents. This study aimed to examine the spatial distribution of PCP in the Yangtze River water, the differences in dry and wet seasons, the ecological risk for aquatic organisms, and its removal efficiency in tap water treatment plants. The river water samples (n = 144) were collected from the upper, middle, and lower reaches across ten provinces (or municipalities) in December 2020 and June 2021, respectively. PCP was detected in 88.9% of all the samples, ranging from  Collapse

Key Words

• Pentachlorophenol
• Removal
• Seasonal difference
• Spatial variations
• Surface water
• Yangtze River

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MESH Headings

• Humans
• Animals
• Pentachlorophenol/analysis
• Ecosystem
• Water Pollutants, Chemical/analysis
• Environmental Monitoring
• Rivers
• Cities
• China
• Risk Assessment
• Aquatic Organisms

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Grants

• WJ2019H307 Health Commission of Hubei Province
• WJ2019H303 Health Commission of Hubei Province
• 42277428 National Natural Science Foundation of China
• 21407117 National Natural Science Foundation of China

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Affiliation(s)

Fengting Yang Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China
Yanjian Wan Center for Public Health Laboratory Service, Institute of Environmental Health, Wuhan Centers for Disease Prevention & Control, Wuhan, Hubei, 430024, People's Republic of China
Yan Wang Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China
Shulan Li Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China
Shunqing Xu Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China
Wei Xia Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China.

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Ecological risk of phenol on typical biota of the northern Chinese river from an integrated probability perspective: the Hun River as an example

Phenol, known for its bioaccumulative nature and severe toxicity to riverine organisms, poses complex challenges for ecological risk assessment. To tackle this issue, we developed a three-stage incremental assessment method, providing an integrated perspective on phenol toxicity risk for aquatic organisms. The findings indicated that phenol concentrations were generally higher in the aquatic environments of northern rivers, such as the Hun River, Taizi River, and Liao River, compared to those in southern China. The evaluation results at individual points showed that the ecological risk of phenol to aquatic organisms ranked from high to low during rainy, dry, and normal seasons, showing seasonal variation characteristics. Regarding spatial variation along the river, the ecological risk of phenol gradually increased from upper reaches, peaked in the middle reaches, and then decreased in the lower reaches. Considering the different species types, fish face a higher risk of toxic effects of phenol than invertebrates when exposed to phenol over a long period of time, probably due to the bioaccumulative nature of phenol. To address ecological risk control at the watershed scale, there is an urgent need to revise China's current river water quality standards. It is essential to increase the emphasis on ecological risk control for aquatic organisms. Developing more targeted and refined ecological risk control strategies for river phenols is crucial to maintain a healthier and more vibrant river ecosystem.

Pollution and risk assessment of phenolic compounds in drinking water sources from South-Western Nigeria

This study reports the occurrence and risk assessment of 2,4-dinitrophenol (2,4-DNP), phenol (PHE), and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (2,4,6-TCP) in drinking water sources in three south-western States in Nigeria (Osun, Oyo, and Lagos). Groundwater (GW) and surface water (SW) were collected during dry and rainy seasons of a year. The detection frequency of the phenolic compounds followed the trend Phenol > 2,4-DNP > 2,4,6-TCP. The mean concentrations of 2,4-DNP, Phenol, and 2,4,6-TCP in GW/SW samples from Osun State were 639/553 μg L-1, 261/262 μg L-1, and 169/131 μg L-1 during the rainy season and 154/7 μg L-1, 78/37 μg L-1, and 123/15 μg L-1 during the dry season, respectively. In Oyo State, the mean concentrations were 165/391 μg L-1 for 2,4-DNP and 71/231 μg L-1 for Phenol in GW/SW samples, respectively, during the rainy season. Generally, in the dry season, these values decreased. In any case, these concentrations are higher than those previously reported in water from other countries. The concentration of 2,4-DNP in water posed serious ecological risks to Daphnia on the acute scale while it was algae on the chronic scale. Estimated daily intake and hazard quotient calculations suggest that 2,4-DNP and 2,4,6-TCP in water pose serious toxicity concerns to humans. Additionally, the concentration of 2,4,6-TCP in water from Osun State in both seasons of the year and in both groundwater and surface water poses significant carcinogenic risks to persons ingesting water from these sources in the State. Every exposure group studied were at risk from ingesting these phenolic compounds in water. However, this risk decreased with increasing age of the exposure group. Results from the principal component analysis indicate that 2,4-DNP in water samples is from an anthropogenic source different from that for Phenol and 2,4,6-TCP. There is a strong need to treat water from GW and SW systems in these States before ingesting while assessing their quality regularly.

Characterization of microalgal toxicants in the sediments from an industrial area: Application of advanced effect-directed analysis with multiple endpoint bioassays

Microalgal toxicants in sediments from an industrialized area (Ulsan Bay) in South Korea were identified using effect-directed analysis (EDA) with full-scan screening analysis (FSA) and microalgal bioassays with multiple endpoints. The growth rate and cell viability of three microalgae (Isochrysis galbana, Dunaliella tertiolecta, and Phaeodactylum tricornutum) were strongly inhibited following exposure to raw organic extracts of sediments from Site D5 (Woehang River). The polar fraction separated using a silica gel column significantly inhibited growth rate, esterase activity, cell membrane intensity, and chlorophyll a autofluorescence. In comparison, non- and mid-polar fractions induced non-toxic or esterase inhibition. Target toxicants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, styrene oligomers, and alkylphenols, were detected at low concentrations (450, 79, and 98 ng g^-1 dw, respectively) in the sediment of D5, indicating the presence of unmonitored toxicants. FSA was performed for the polar fraction using LC-QTOFMS, and 31 candidates of toxicants were selected. Toxicological confirmation was conducted for 7 candidates for which standards are available. Out of these, 2-nitrophenol, 3-nitrophenol, and 4-nitrophenol showed significant microalgal toxicity; however, these compounds did not fully explain the induced toxicity. Overall, combining EDA and FSA with multiple endpoint bioassays demonstrated the benefits of characterizing the microalgal toxicants in the environments.

Preparation of MnO2-Carbon Materials and Their Applications in Photocatalytic Water Treatment

Water pollution is one of the most important problems in the field of environmental protection in the whole world, and organic pollution is a critical one for wastewater pollution problems. How to solve the problem effectively has triggered a common concern in the area of environmental protection nowadays. Around this problem, scientists have carried out a lot of research; due to the advantages of high efficiency, a lack of secondary pollution, and low cost, photocatalytic technology has attracted more and more attention. In the past, MnO₂ was seldom used in the field of water pollution treatment due to its easy agglomeration and low catalytic activity at low temperatures. With the development of carbon materials, it was found that the composite of carbon materials and MnO₂ could overcome the above defects, and the composite had good photocatalytic performance, and the research on the photocatalytic performance of MnO₂-carbon materials has gradually become a research hotspot in recent years. This review covers recent progress on MnO₂-carbon materials for photocatalytic water treatment. We focus on the preparation methods of MnO₂ and different kinds of carbon material composites and the application of composite materials in the removal of phenolic compounds, antibiotics, organic dyes, and heavy metal ions in water. Finally, we present our perspective on the challenges and future research directions of MnO₂-carbon materials in the field of environmental applications.

MXene-based electrochemical and biosensing platforms to detect toxic elements and pesticides pollutants from environmental matrices

Fabricating new biosensing constructs with high selectivity and sensitivity is the most needed environmental detection tool. In this context, several nanostructured materials have been envisaged to construct biosensors to achieve superior selectivity and sensitivity. Among them, MXene is regarded as the most promising to develop biosensors due to its fascinating attributes, like high surface area, excellent thermal resistance, good hydrophilicity, unique layered topology, high electrical conductivity, and environmentally-friendlier properties. MXenes-based materials have emerged as a prospective for catalysis, energy storage, electronics, and environmental sensing and remediation applications thanks to the above-mentioned exceptional characteristics. This review elaborates on the contemporary and state-of-the-art advancements in MXene-based electrochemical and biosensing tools to detect toxic elements, pharmaceutically active residues, and pesticide contaminants from environmental matrices. At first, the surface functionalization/modification of MXenes is discussed. Afterwards, a particular focus has been devoted to exploiting MXene to construct electrochemical (bio) sensors to detect various environmentally-related pollutants. Lastly, current challenges in this arena accompanied by potential solutions and directions are also outlined.

Phenolic compounds in water, suspended particulate matter and sediment from Weihe River in Northwest China

The distribution and ecological risks of 11 phenolic compounds were studied in Weihe River, Northwest China. The concentrations of phenolic compounds were determined by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UPLC). The total concentration of 11 phenolic compounds (∑PC₁₁) ranged from 0.06 to 14.12 μg/L with an average of 5.22 μg/L in water, from 0.92 to 34,885 μg/g with an average of 4,446 μg/g in suspended particulate matter (SPM), and from 3.54 to 34.09 μg/g with an average of 11.09 μg/g in sediment. For individual phenolic compound, the mean concentration of pentachlorophenol was the highest in water (2.65 μg/L) and in SPM (3,865 μg/g), while in sediment the mean concentration of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol was the highest (3.05 μg/g). The total concentration of 5 chlorophenols (∑CP₅) was significantly higher than that of 6 non-chlorophenols (∑NCP₆) in all three studied compartments. The phenolic compounds in Weihe River were at moderate levels in water and at high levels in sediment. The ecological risk assessment results indicated that phenolic compounds exhibited a high ecological risk in Weihe River water. In most sites, the distribution coefficient (Kd) (SPM) was much higher than Kd (sediment), which probably suggested fresh phenolic compounds input in Weihe River.

Phenolic compounds seasonal occurrence and risk assessment in surface and treated waters in Minas Gerais-Brazil

This study provided a monitoring of phenolic compounds occurrence in a river and in its treated water by a conventional water treatment plant (WTP) throughout a year-period, in Minas Gerais - Brazil. Furthermore, the environmental risk (hazard quotient - HQ), the human health risk (margin of exposure - MOE), and the cancer risk were calculated for the compounds. The results indicated that sixteen out of the seventeen investigated phenolic compounds were detected at some point during the sampling campaign. The most frequent compounds in the raw surface water were 2,3,4-trichlorophenol (234TCP), 2,4-dimethylphenol (24DMP), and 4-nitrophenol (4NP), whereas in treated water were 4NP and bisphenol A (BPA). In addition, the highest total concentration values were corelated to the months in which there was less precipitation, demonstrating that the presence of this micropollutants may be subject to seasonality. From the treated water results, it was not possible to state the efficiency of the conventional WTP in eliminating the phenols, since in some samples the phenolic compounds were totally removed and in others their increase or formation occurred. Regarding to the risk assessments, most of the evaluated compounds were considered highly toxic to some trophic level and posed a significant human health risk. Additionally, the risk reduction of phenolics using conventional WTP was low. The sixteen phenols contamination in surface and drinking waters appears to be subject to seasonality. Besides that, an alarming risk for environment and human health was identified.

Health risk assessment of trace elements exposure through the soil-plant (maize)-human contamination pathway near a petrochemical industry complex, Northeast China

The trace elements contamination of agricultural soils near petrochemical industry complexes is a concern due to the risk of accumulating in food systems and subsequently affecting human health. We measured representative trace elements (Cu, Ni, Cr, Pb, Zn, Pb, Hg and As) through the soil-plant (maize)-human contamination pathway near a petrochemical industry complexes in an agricultural region from September 20 to 28, 2016. We found that the soil was mildly to moderately polluted by multiple trace elements, which was also confirmed by the contamination factor and enrichment factor values. Cd (enrichment factor = 2.28), Cu (2.75), Zn (1.85) and Pb (1.70) should be given more attention and prioritized over the other trace elements due to their higher potential risks. Furthermore, the trace elements contamination in maize grains was lower than the corresponding limits. The sequence of the transfer coefficient values was Zn > Cd > Cu > Hg > Ni > As > Cr > Pb. Maize grain safety was threatened mainly by Zn, Cd and Cu. There was no risk to humans through soil ingestion, while a potential health risk from maize grain consumption existed. Children were more sensitive than adults to the non-carcinogenic risks of maize grain consumption. Trace element As was found to be the priority metal for risk control. For carcinogenic risk, adults were more sensitive than children; As, Cr and Cd were the priority metals for risk control, with CR_maize values exceeding the risk threshold (1 × 10^-4). Overall, strict, intensive monitoring, especially of Cr and Cd, and soil protection measures are needed to prevent any furthertrace elements contamination and to ensure food safety. This study also provides a reference for similar studies worldwide.

Catalytic Pyrolysis as a Technology to Dispose of Herbal Medicine Waste

The use of herbal medicine has increased tremendously over the last decades, generating a considerable amount of herbal medicine waste. Pyrolysis is a promising option to dispose of biomass and organic waste such as herbal medicine waste. Herein, an activated carbon-supported Pt catalyst (Pt/AC) and carbon dioxide (CO2) were applied to the pyrolysis of real herbal medicine waste to develop a thermal disposal method to prevent the formation of benzene derivatives that are harmful to the environment and human health. When using the Pt/AC catalyst in the pyrolysis of the herbal medicine waste at 500 °C, the generation of benzyl species was suppressed. This was likely because the Pt catalytic sites accelerate a free radical mechanism that is dominant in the thermal cracking of carbonaceous substances. However, the employment of CO2 (instead of typically used N2) as a pyrolysis medium for the herbal medicine waste pyrolysis did not decrease the concentrations of benzyl compounds contained in the pyrolytic products of the herbal medicine waste. This study might help develop a method to thermally dispose of agricultural biowaste, preventing the formation of harmful chemicals to the environment and human beings.

Source apportionment of phenolic compounds based on a simultaneous monitoring of surface water and emission sources: A case study in a typical region adjacent to Taihu Lake watershed

A comprehensive characterisation of four phenolic compounds in surface water and various emission sources was conducted simultaneously in a typical industrial city upstream of the Taihu Lake watershed. The overall concentrations of the target compounds ranged from 0.15 to 2.75 μg/L in the surface water and from 0.43 to 377 μg/L in the emission sources. Relatively high concentration levels were observed in August, during which the rainy season typically occurred in the study area, indicating seasonal emission sources. The spatial distribution revealed severe phenolic-compound contamination in the northeast part of the study area. According to the relationships between the surface water and emission sources, combined-sewer overflow and surface runoff from agricultural activities were identified as seasonal emission sources that were responsible for the increased concentration levels in wet seasons. Indirect discharge of industrial wastewater was proposed as a persistent emission source responsible for the severe contamination level in the northeast region over the entire sampling period, accounting for 16.5% of the phenolic-compound load in a demonstration river section. The findings of this study are useful for identifying the sources of phenolic compounds and controlling the contamination from the main sources in a typical industrial city.

Influence of multi-walled carbon nanotubes on the microbial biomass, enzyme activity, and bacterial community structure in 2,4-dichlorophenol-contaminated sediment

The rise in manufacture and use of carbon nanotubes has aroused the concern about their potential risks associated with coexisting pollutants in the aquatic environment. 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP), with a high toxicity to many aquatic organisms, is a widespread pollutant resulting from the extensive use of pesticides and preservatives. In this article, the adsorption of 2,4-DCP by riverine sediment and the responses of sediment microbial community to 2,4-DCP were studied in the presence of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). Adding MWCNTs significantly increased the adsorption amount of sediment for 2,4-DCP from 0.541 to 1.44 mg/g as the MWCNT concentration increased from 0 to 15 mg/g. The responses of sediment microbial community were determined after one-month exposure to MWCNTs at different concentrations (0.05, 0.5, 5, and 50 mg/g). The microbial biomass carbon in the sediment contaminated with 2,4-DCP increased in the presence of 5 mg/g of MWCNTs (from 0.06 to 0.11 mg/g), but not significantly changed at other MWCNT concentrations. For the sediments contaminated with 2,4-DCP, the presence of MWCNTs made no difference to urease activity, while the dehydrogenase activity slightly increased with the addition of 5 mg/g of MWCNTs and decreased in the presence of 50 mg/g of MWCNTs. The changes of sediment bacterial communities were further determined by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Based on the weighted UniFrac distance between communities, the clustering analysis suggested that the contamination of 2,4-DCP affected the bacterial community structure in a greater degree than that caused by MWCNTs at relatively low concentrations (≤5 mg/g). Bacteroidetes, Planctomycetes, and Nitrospirae were feature bacterial phyla to reflect the effects of MWCNTs and 2,4-DCP on sediment bacterial community. These results may contribute to the understanding of microbial community response to co-exposure of MWCNTs and 2,4-DCP and the assessment of associated ecological risks.

Risk of Lead Exposure from Transport Stations to Human Health: A Case Study in the Highland Province of Vietnam

Lead (Pb) is a heavy metal that negatively affects human health. Many studies have shown the relationship between lead exposure and various human activities, of which automobile service stations with gasoline emissions are considered the main cause. However, a limited number of studies have specifically considered lead exposure from automobile stations in Vietnam, as well as its impact on human activities and the surrounding natural resources. The objective of this study was to assess the possible risks of lead exposure to the surrounding agricultural and non-agricultural farms of a bus station located in the center of Dalat city, Lamdong province, Vietnam. To address this objective, 45 samples were collected from the soil, irrigated water resources, and vegetable crops of areas both close to and far away from the bus station. These samples were tested using the atomic absorption spectrometry technique. Our findings demonstrated higher lead concentration levels from all three types of samples collected from areas near the bus station. Of which, soil and water samples showed higher than normal exposure values of lead, but these were still under the allowed limits established by the Vietnam standard. Different from the soil and water, vegetable samples surrounding the bus station presented greater lead contamination than the permitted limit. High risk quotient (RQ) indexes were detected to point out that accumulative consumption of leaded vegetables over time could cause lead poisoning and harm human health. This study not only provides significant inferential evidence of the risk of lead exposure to agricultural activities and human health in Vietnam, but also delivers a real-life example for a real-world context.

Distribution patterns and ecological risk of endocrine-disrupting chemicals at Qingduizi Bay (China): A preliminary survey in a developing maricultured bay

The occurrence and estrogenic activities of seven phenolic endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC) compounds (nonylphenol (NP), octylphenol (4-OP), 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP), 4-tertbutylphenol (4-t-BP), 4-tert-octylphenol (4-t-OP), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), and bisphenol A (BPA)) in the sediments of Qingduizi Bay (NorthernYellow Sea, China) in superficial sediments were investigated to evaluate their potential ecological impacts on the health of aquaculture organisms. All compounds, except 4-OP and 4-t-BP, were recorded in most sampling sites (1.06-28.07 ng g^-1 dw in maricultural ponds (MPs), 1.98-8.22 ng g^-1 dw in outer bay (OB)). BPA and 4-t-OP were the predominant EDC compounds in MPs and OB, respectively. Correlation between BPA and 4-t-OP indicated these compounds may share a similar source or pathway. Analyzed estrogenic activity revealed a low risk of total EDCs. The ranking of risk quotient showed 4-t-OP posed a median risk and TBBPA posed a high risk to the aquatic ecosystem.