My Mind is Working Overtime-Towards an Integrative Perspective of Psychological Detachment, Work-Related Rumination, and Work Reflection

Patient mistreatment, emotional exhaustion and work-family conflict among nurses: a moderated mediation model of social sharing of negative work events and perceived organizational support

BACKGROUND

Nursing literature suggested that patient mistreatment has significant impacts on nurses' emotions and job burnout. Yet, further research is needed to understand the underlying mechanism and the spillover effect on nurses' families. Leveraging the goal progress theory, this study aimed to examine the association between patient mistreatment, nurses' emotional exhaustion, and work-family conflict, as well as the mediating role of social sharing of negative work events and the moderating role of perceived organizational support.

METHODS

During the COVID-19 pandemic in China, a cross-sectional study was conducted with a sample of 1627 nurses from the Hematology Specialist Alliance of Chongqing from October to November 2022. Questionnaires were administered to measure patient mistreatment, perceived organizational support, social sharing of negative work events, emotional exhaustion, and work-family conflict. Hierarchical linear regression and conditional processes were used for statistical analyses.

RESULTS

Patient mistreatment was positively associated with emotional exhaustion (β = 0.354, p < 0.001) and work-family conflict (β = 0.314, p < 0.001). Social sharing of negative work events played a partial mediating role in the relationship between patient mistreatment and emotional exhaustion (effect = 0.067, SE = 0.013), and work-family conflict (effect = 0.077, SE = 0.014). Moderated mediation analysis found that the mediation effect was stronger when the perceived organizational support was high.

CONCLUSION

Our findings reveal the amplifying effect of social sharing of negative work events on nurses' emotional exhaustion and work-family conflict. Perceived organizational support strengthens the positive effect of patient mistreatment on the social sharing of negative work events, thus resulting in increased emotional exhaustion and work-family conflict. We also discuss practical implications, limitations, and directions for future research.

Mitigating Workplace Burnout Through Transformational Leadership and Employee Participation in Recovery Experiences

Description Burnout is a complex organizational phenomenon that diminishes employee well-being and overall organizational productivity. Researchers propose that leadership style contributes to employees' well-being, which impacts employee productivity. Organizations and leaders must address the causes of burnout and promote techniques employees can use to mitigate burnout, such as employee participation in recovery experiences. Recovery experiences are non-work activities that create positive outlooks and restore the energy needed to focus on one's work. This literature review examines current research in employee recovery experiences, conservation of resource theory (COR), burnout, and transformational leadership theory. Studying burnout through the lens of COR shows how important resource gain and recovery activities are to healthy employees and their job performance within the organization. The research reviewed suggests that transformational and transactional leadership styles have higher probabilities of promoting employee participation in recovery experiences than passive avoidant leadership style. The literature consistently showed burnout as a significant organizational phenomenon negatively affecting productivity, employee well-being, and turnover rates. The literature revealed that mitigating burnout happens through participation in recovery experiences. The literature on leadership styles supports the assumption that leaders play a significant role in employee well-being, group identity, and organizational climate. Leaders who desire to mitigate employee burnout will benefit from research that links transformational leadership style behaviors and employee participation in recovery activities.

The role of social support in human-automation interaction

This theoretical article examines the concept of social support in the context of human-automation interaction, outlining several critical issues. We identified several factors that we expect to influence the consequences of social support and to what extent it is perceived as appropriate (e.g. provider possibilities, recipient expectations), notably regarding potential threats to self-esteem. We emphasise the importance of performance (including extra-role performance) as a potential outcome, whereas previous research has primarily concentrated on health and well-being. We discuss to what extent automation may provide different types of social support (e.g. emotional, instrumental), and how it differs from human support. Finally, we propose a taxonomy of automated support, arguing that source of support is not a binary concept. We conclude that more empirical work is needed to examine the multiple effects of social support for core performance indicators and extra-role performance and emphasise that there are ethical questions involved.

Factors influencing the thriving of emergency department nurses in China

INTRODUCTION

Thriving is a positive feeling arising from nurses' work and is increasingly valued by managers. Given their demanding workloads and various duties, it is necessary to research the determinants of ED nurses' thriving. This study aimed to investigate the factors influencing thriving and the mechanisms of interaction between the factors among ED nurses.

METHODS

380 ED nurses from six tertiary hospitals in Shandong Province, China, participated in this cross-sectional study. The instruments used were the General Information Questionnaire, Challenge-Hindrance Stressors Scale, Psychological Detachment Scale, and Thriving at Work Scale. Data analysis methods included univariate analysis, Pearson correlation, PROCESS 4.0, and hierarchical multiple regression.

RESULTS

Weekly working hours affected nurses' thriving. Challenge stressors and psychological detachment were positively related to thriving. Hindrance stressors had a negative link with thriving. Psychological detachment suppressed the relationship between challenge stressors and thriving; however, it mediated the relationship between hindrance stressors and thriving.

CONCLUSION

Challenge-hindrance stressors and psychological detachment are significant elements influencing ED nurses' thriving. Nursing administrators should help ED nurses properly address stressors with different attributes and adopt appropriate strategies to improve nurses' thriving by enhancing psychological detachment.

Boundary violations and university teachers' well-being during mandatory telework: Recovery's role and gender differences

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to explore the role of psychological detachment from work in the relationship of boundary violations and flourishing, as well as gender differences among university teachers during mandatory telework. We developed and tested a moderate mediation model where psychological detachment was the explanatory mechanism of the relationship between boundary violations with flourishing and using gender as the moderating variable.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted with a sample of 921 Brazilian university teachers (mean age 44 years, 681 women and 240 men) during mandatory telework. Multigroup analysis and moderate mediation were performed using Mplus 7.2.

RESULTS

Psychological detachment mediated the relationship between boundary violations (in both directions) and flourishing and work-to-family violations were more harmful to women' recovery instead family-to-work violations were more harmful to men' recovery, among university teachers during mandatory telework.

CONCLUSION

By focusing on boundary violations in the context of mandatory telework, the study sheds light on the impact of blurred boundaries between work and personal life. This contributes both literature on work-life balance and literature recovery. Moreover, it helps to understand a crisis setting of remote work. Further, the study's findings regarding gender differences highlight how men and women may experience and cope with boundary violations differently during mandatory telework, supporting future specific interventions across genders.

A thematic analysis of how men and women post 56 years unwind from work during their free time

BACKGROUND

Recent research indicates that as men age, their tendency to ruminate about work decreases, while ruminating remains high in women, which poses an increased risk for impaired health among older women.

OBJECTIVE

This study explored gender differences/similarities in the process of unwinding from work in men and women aged between 56-65 years.

METHODS

Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted online with eight men and eight women, recruited from a UK leading organization that provides health care solutions between May and June 2022. Participants were asked about their job role and responsibilities, their leisure time activities, how they unwind post work, and their experiences of thinking about work related thoughts outside of work. Transcripts were analyzed using an inductive analysis.

RESULTS

Three superordinate themes were identified that underpinned their ability to unwind: 'Work style', 'Creating work-life balance' and 'Switching off from one's responsibilities'. Women reported a more perfectionist approach, they set high standards for themselves, were worried about making mistakes, and demonstrated, if in a supervisory role, a more nurturing and holistic approach to their colleagues/subordinates, while men, were more focused on task completion. Most women, but not men, also described difficulties in psychologically switching off from work, and stated they could only truly relax outside the home, when they are away from household activities.

CONCLUSION

The study provides nuanced insights into the experiences of unwinding from work, and the findings suggest the need for person-centric approaches in developing interventions to help workers over 56 years to psychologically disengage from work.

Contribution of rumination and psychological resilience to post-traumatic growth of front-line healthcare workers in mobile cabin hospitals under Normalized epidemic Prevention and Control Requirements

To understand the level of post-traumatic growth (PTG) and influencing factors among front-line healthcare workers (HCWs) working in mobile cabin hospitals treating patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) under the Normalized Epidemic Prevention and Control Requirements adopted in China. A random sampling method was used to select 540 HCWs of the Chongqing-aid-Shanghai medical team from April to May 2022 as the study participants. Participants completed a general information questionnaire, the Post-traumatic Growth Inventory-Chinese version (PTGI-C), the Chinese version of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) and the Chinese Event Related Rumination Inventory (C-ERRI). Among the 540 included HCWs, 83.15 % were nurses and 78.89 % were women. The average scores for PTG (62.25 ± 16.73) and psychological resilience (64.22 ± 15.38) were at moderate levels, and the average score for rumination was low (21.62 ± 10.77). Pearson correlation analysis showed that CD-RISC and C-ERRI scores were positive with the PTGI-C score (r = 0.528, 0.316, P < 0.001). Multiple linear regression analysis identified psychological training or intervention during the COVID-19 epidemic (β = 2.353, P = 0.044), psychological resilience (β = 0.525, P < 0.001) and deliberate rumination (β = 0.732, P < 0.001) as factors significantly associated with the PTG of front-line HCWs, which together explained 36.8 % of the total variance in PTG (F[5,539] = 63.866, P < 0.001). In general, psychological resilience and deliberate rumination can promote PTG among HCWs and can be improved by strengthening psychological training and interventions for HCWs working under the Normalized Epidemic Prevention and Control Requirements.

Development and validation of the Work-Home Integration Questionnaire (WHIQ)

The boundaries between work and private life are gradually blurring. More and more employees are involved in work during leisure time through cognitions, emotions or behaviours, in both negative and positive ways. This so-called work-home integration (WHI) can, on the one hand, hampers the necessary recovery from work and result in strain but, on the other hand, also restores resources and result in beneficial outcomes. In order to enhance our understanding of WHI and capture all its different forms, we suggest a new conceptualisation and measure of WHI. We therefore developed and validated the Work-Home Integration Questionnaire (WHIQ) in English, German and Slovene simultaneously using two cross-sectional studies (Study 1: N = 848; Study 2: N = 555) and a two-wave longitudinal study with a time lag of 1 month (Study 3: N = 379). Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed a three-factor structure with (1) negative cognitive-affective involvement, (2) positive cognitive-affective involvement and (3) behavioural involvement. Moreover, the WHIQ showed measurement invariance across the three languages and the results provide evidence for convergent, discriminant and incremental validity. Overall, the WHIQ is a reliable, valid and short measure to assess the extent to which employees are involved in work during leisure time.

Fears during the Covid-19 pandemics and their influence on physical health: A cross-sectional study on the general population in Spain

Background/objective

This study examines the paths through which Covid-19 can negatively impact health and lead to somatic symptoms. Based on the dual process theory, fears can impair health in two ways: through psychological distress, which is an automatic reaction to fear, and through a more conscious and deliberative rumination process.

Method

Data from a representative sample of the Spanish population (N = 3083 subjects,18 years or older) were obtained from a Survey by the Sociological Research Center (CIS). The dual path model was tested, and a longer sequence was included where the two mediators act sequentially to produce an impact on somatic symptoms.

Results

The results showed how Covid-19 fears translate into somatic problems. Beyond the direct relations, and after comparing with other possible alternative models, our findings support a process where rumination mediates between fears and psychological distress, and psychological distress in turn leads to somatic problems.

Conclusions

This process reveals a plausible mechanism that explains the somatization of health problems during the Covid-19 pandemic, and it provides theoretical and practical inputs to better understand the role of fears in health in crisis contexts.

Mediating and Moderating Effects of Psychological Detachment on the Association Between Stressors and Depression: A Longitudinal Study of Japanese Workers

OBJECTIVES

This study examines the mediating and moderating effects of psychological detachment (PD) based on the stressor-detachment model in the long term.

METHODS

Two waves of Web-based surveys, 28 months apart, yielded 3556 responses from Japanese workers. Comparisons between models that included mediating and moderating effects of PD and reverse direction mediating effects (strain → PD → stressor) were made by structural equation modeling. Differences in depression as a strain between combinations of high and low stressors and PD were also examined.

RESULTS

The best-fitting model was the moderation/reciprocal partial-mediation model. The effect of PD was significant in the group with stable or decreasing stressor.

CONCLUSION

According to the worker's level of stressors, PD, and depression, targeted interventions may effectively prevent physical and mental health problems caused by chronic stress.

Too Committed to Switch Off-Capturing and Organizing the Full Range of Work-Related Rumination from Detachment to Overcommitment

Work-related thoughts during off-job time have been studied extensively in occupational health psychology and related fields. We provide a focused review of the research on overcommitment-a component within the effort-reward imbalance model-and aim to connect this line of research to the most commonly studied aspects of work-related rumination. Drawing on this integrative review, we analyze survey data on ten facets of work-related rumination, namely (1) overcommitment, (2) psychological detachment, (3) affective rumination, (4) problem-solving pondering, (5) positive work reflection, (6) negative work reflection, (7) distraction, (8) cognitive irritation, (9) emotional irritation, and (10) inability to recover. First, we apply exploratory factor analysis to self-reported survey data from 357 employees to calibrate overcommitment items and to position overcommitment within the nomological net of work-related rumination constructs. Second, we apply confirmatory factor analysis to self-reported survey data from 388 employees to provide a more specific test of uniqueness vs. overlap among these constructs. Third, we apply relative weight analysis to assess the unique criterion-related validity of each work-related rumination facet regarding (1) physical fatigue, (2) cognitive fatigue, (3) emotional fatigue, (4) burnout, (5) psychosomatic complaints, and (6) satisfaction with life. Our results suggest that several measures of work-related rumination (e.g., overcommitment and cognitive irritation) can be used interchangeably. Emotional irritation and affective rumination emerge as the strongest unique predictors of fatigue, burnout, psychosomatic complaints, and satisfaction with life. Our study is intended to assist researchers in making informed decisions on selecting scales for their research and paves the way for integrating research on the effort-reward imbalance and work-related rumination.

Antecedents, outcomes and measurement of work related-cognition in non-work time: A multistudy report using the work-related rumination questionnaire in two languages

According to the perseverative cognition hypothesis, prolonged activation for example, via work-related rumination impairs recovery and thereby poses a risk to employee health. The extent to which gender, age, occupation or longitudinal stress exposure may alter work-related rumination is an ongoing debate. Whether group or longitudinal comparisons of work-related rumination are valid, however, has never been tested. In this multistudy report, we therefore investigated measurement invariance of the widely used Work-Related Rumination Questionnaire (WRRQ) across gender, age, occupation, and longitudinal measurements by performing secondary analyses of preexisting data on work-related rumination. We examined the psychometric properties of WRRQ measurements in two languages and expand knowledge about the nomological network of affective rumination, problem-solving pondering and detachment in relation to individual employee characteristics (e.g., personality, work engagement, commitment), job stressors (e.g., work intensity, decision latitude, social relations with colleagues and supervisors) and employee health outcomes (e.g., wellbeing, irritation, somatic symptoms). Multigroup confirmatory factor analyses showed partial scalar invariance of English and German WRRQ measurements and full scalar invariance across gender, age, occupation and over the period of 1 week (Study 1, n = 2,207). Correlation analyses supported criterion, convergent and discriminant validity of WRRQ measurements (Study 2, n = 4,002). These findings represent a prerequisite for comparisons of work-related cognition across groups and further the understanding of the antecedents and outcomes of different types of work-related cognition.

When Thoughts Have No Off Switch: The Cost of Telepressure and Message-based Communication behaviour within Boundary-crossing Contexts

Communication technology enables employees to be constantly connected at the cost of potentially blurring the boundaries between work and private life, which can be detrimental to their well-being. The present study utilised a quantitative diary approach (N = 269 employees, N = 1256 data points) to provide further evidence on the association between telepressure and ruminative thoughts within boundary-crossing contexts (i.e., including work-related behaviour and cognitions during leisure time as well as private-related behaviour and cognitions at work). On a day-to-day level, we examined if context-incongruent telepressure had a positive effect on context-incongruent affective rumination through context-incongruent message-based communication behaviour. Multilevel analyses supported our hypothesised mediation models. Altogether, findings reveal that quickly replying towards messages or its related cognition (i.e., telepressure) may result in a resource-draining experience in terms of affective rumination within both boundary-crossing contexts. Theoretical and practical implications as well as future research avenues are discussed.

Being Tired or Having Much Left Undone: The Relationship Between Fatigue and Unfinished Tasks With Affective Rumination and Vitality in Beginning Teachers

The present diary study was conducted for the purpose of bridging and integrating empirical research on the antecedents and consequences of work-related ruminative processes in the evening. Based on the control theory, unfinished tasks and fatigue in the afternoon were considered as antecedents of affective rumination, while vitality was investigated as the outcome observed in the next morning to test for cyclical processes. During a 5-day diary study (including 3 weekdays and the weekend), 74 beginning teachers completed three diary entries per day. A total of 795 diary entries were obtained. Using multilevel structural equation modeling, the study supported that both fatigue and unfinished tasks explained unique shares of variance of affective rumination in the evening at the between- and within-person levels. Furthermore, affective rumination mediated the relationship between unfinished tasks and vitality as well as fatigue and vitality. However, this only held true at the between- and not the within-person level, as neither affective rumination nor fatigue and unfinished tasks predicted the following morning’s vitality at this level. The results offer insights into the antecedents of affective rumination and add to extant research on the negative consequences of affective rumination considering vitality as an outcome.

Do Autistic Traits Correlate with Post-Traumatic Stress and Mood Spectrum Symptoms among Workers Complaining of Occupational Stress?

The adult autism subthreshold spectrum model appears to be a useful tool for detecting possible vulnerability factors in order to develop mental disorders in the contest of work-related stress. The aim of the present study is to analyze the relationship between autism, mood, and post-traumatic spectrum in a cohort of subjects complaining of work-related stress before the COVID-19 pandemic. The authors carried out a retrospective investigation of both medical records and self-assessment tools of a sample of subjects evaluated at the Occupational Health Department of a University hospital in central Italy. Data showed significant correlations between the AdAS spectrum, TALS-SR, and MOODS total and domain scores. A multiple linear regression evidenced that both the AdAS spectrum and TAL-SR significantly predict the MOODS scores. In particular, mediation analysis showed both a direct and indirect, mediated by TALS-SR, effect of the AdAS Spectrum on the MOODS-SR. These results corroborate the role of autistic traits in influencing the traumatic impact of work-related stress and the development of mood spectrum symptoms.

How leaders benefit from engaging in high-quality leader-member exchanges: a daily diary study

Purpose

Drawing from the conservation of resources theory and the success resource model of job stress, the authors investigated the role of leader behaviours in the context of leader-member exchanges (LMXs) as a driver of leaders' job-related well-being and recovery. Specifically, they hypothesised positive affect and perceived competence as potential mechanisms enhancing leaders' job satisfaction and psychological detachment.

Design/methodology/approach

Daily diary data were collected from 85 leaders over five consecutive working days (376 daily observations) and analysed using multilevel path analyses.

Findings

Leader LMX behaviours were positively associated with leaders' positive affect and perceived competence at work at the person and day levels. Additionally, results provided support for most of the assumed indirect effects of leader LMX behaviours on leaders' job satisfaction and psychological detachment via positive affect and perceived competence.

Practical implications

Leadership development activities should raise leaders' awareness of the relevance of resourceful interactions with followers for leaders' own well-being. Organisations should create a working environment that facilitates high-quality exchanges amongst their members. The current trend towards increasing digital and less face-to-face collaboration may pose a risk to this important resource source for leaders.

Originality/value

These findings emphasise the day-to-day variation in leadership behaviours and that leaders' engagement in high-quality leader-follower interactions has the potential to stimulate a resource-building process for the benefit of leaders themselves.

How does burnout relate to daily work-related rumination and well-being of psychotherapists? A daily diary study among psychotherapeutic practitioners

OBJECTIVE

This is the first study to use a daily diary design to investigate the relationship between daily work-related rumination (WRR), daily well-being, and burnout symptoms among psychotherapeutic practitioners.

METHOD

In total, N = 58 psychotherapeutic practitioners participated in the study. For 4 weeks, the participants received a daily evening prompt on weekdays asking about their WRR and well-being. The burnout level of the psychotherapists was assessed using Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) prior to the daily diary period and afterward. The MBI measures the level of work-related distress on three subscales: emotional exhaustion (EE), depersonalization (DP), and personal achievement (PA). Two main analyses were performed: Based on the hierarchical structure of the data we performed random intercept and slopes models. These models examined the association between daily WRR and daily well-being, and the relationship between pre-burnout and daily WRR and daily mood. Secondly, linear regressions with the post-MBI subscales as criterion and the daily diary variables as predictors were calculated to assess their contribution to post-burnout.

RESULTS

The compliance rate in our study was 76.8%. Daily WRR and pre-assessment EE were associated with all aspects of reduced daily well-being: bad mood, increased nervousness, and tiredness after work. Daily tiredness and nervousness played a differential role in predicting post-burnout.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicated that daily rumination and pre-EE were associated with reduced daily well-being. As we are the first to present a daily diary study among psychotherapists, we examined the feasibility of the daily diary design in particular and ecological momentary assessment (EMA) in general in this population. Compliance rates compared well with other EMA studies, indicating that EMAs were a feasible assessment option for psychotherapeutic practitioners.

Review of the Internal Structure, Psychometric Properties, and Measurement Invariance of the Work-Related Rumination Scale - Spanish Version

Background: The aim of the current study was to examine the internal structure and assess the psychometric properties of the Work-Related Rumination Scale (WRRS) – Spanish version in a Puerto Rican sample of workers. This instrument is a 15-item questionnaire, which has three factors, affective rumination, problem-solving pondering, and detachment. This measure is used in the occupational health psychology context; however, there is little evidence of its psychometric properties.

Materials and Methods: A total sample of 4,100 from five different study samples was used in this cross-sectional study design in which the WRRS was used. We conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) to examine the internal structure of the Work-Related Rumination Scale. Measurement invariance across sex and age was examined.

Results: The three-factor model was supported; however, four items were eliminated due to their cross-loadings and factorial complexity. This 11-item Spanish version of the WRRS was invariant across sex and age. Reliability of the three-factors of WRRS were within the range of 0.74 to 0.87 using Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega. Correlations between the three factors were as expected as well as with other established measures.

Conclusion: The results suggest that the WRRS-Spanish version appears to be a reliable and valid instrument to measure work-related rumination using its three factors. Comparison across sex and age appear to be useful in occupational health psychology research setting since results suggest that the WRRS is invariant regarding those variables.

Promoting recovery in daily life: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Work-related stress shows steadily increasing prevalence rates and has tangible consequences for individual workers, their organizations, and society as a whole. One mechanism that may help offset the negative outcomes of work-related stress on employees' well-being is recovery. Recovery refers to the experience of unwinding from one's job when not at work. However, employees who experience high levels of work-related stress and are thus particularly in need of recovery tend to struggle to switch-off. Due to the detrimental effects of this prolonged and sustained mental representation of job stressors, interventions promoting recovery may contribute to improvements in employees' mental health.

METHODS

In this randomized, waitlist controlled trial, we will investigate the effectiveness of two 6-week online training programs (cognitive behavioral and mindfulness-based). The sample will include employees working at least part-time during regular work hours. Besides the pre-post-follow-up assessments, the trial will include measurement bursts with the goal of examining the underlying mechanisms. We expect that both interventions will reduce work-related perseverative thinking (PT) compared with the waitlist control groups (primary outcome). Also, we expect that both interventions will result in similar improvements, but the underlying mechanisms will differ (process outcomes). In the cognitive-behavioral intervention group, we expect that the main mechanism responsible for lower PT levels will be an increase in recovery experiences across time. In the mindfulness-based group, we expect that the main mechanism responsible for lower PT levels will be an increase in facets of mindfulness across time.

DISCUSSION

In the present study, we will investigate mechanisms underlying assumed changes in work-related PT in great detail. Besides evaluating the overall effectiveness of the two interventions in terms of pre-post-follow-up changes, we will look at the underlying processes at different levels-that is, within days, within weeks, across weeks, and between individuals. Accordingly, our study will offer a fine-grained approach to investigating potential determinants, mediators, and moderators of the processes that may, in the end, be responsible for work-related strain. From a public health perspective, if effective, the online training programs may offer valuable, low-threshold, and low-intensity interventions for a broad range of occupations. Trial registration German Clinical Trials Registration: DRKS00024933. Registered prospectively 7 April 2021. https://www.drks.de/drks_web/navigate.do?navigationId=trial.HTML&TRIAL_ID=DRKS00024933.

Collective resources for individual recovery: The moderating role of social climate on the relationship between job stressors and work-related rumination – A multilevel approach

In this study, we link cognitive processes of recovery to the social context in which employees experience job stressors. The aim was to examine how the social context in which employees experience work stressors is associated with individuals’ work-related thoughts in nonwork time and thus may prolong work-related mental efforts beyond working hours. We used aggregated individual ratings on social relations with colleagues and supervisors as a primer for social climate within workgroups, calculated the rate of permanent employment contracts per workgroup as a proxy for the stability of social relations within workgroups and used organizational affiliations to specify job settings in terms of routine versus creative tasks. Drawing on cross-sectional data from a psychosocial risk assessment and occupational health promotion survey of N = 1836 employees in 118 workgroups with different occupations at a German university, we tested multilevel random-coefficient models for affective rumination and problem-solving pondering. Results indicated a negative association of collegial climate with affective rumination but no association with problem-solving pondering. Supervisory climate was unrelated to both types of ruminative thinking. The stability of social relations within workgroups was negatively associated with affective rumination as well as with problem-solving pondering, whereas the job setting was only associated with problem-solving pondering. A cross-level interaction indicated a positive moderation effect of collegial climate on the relationship between job stressors and affective rumination. The findings indicate that a positive collegial climate can buffer the negative impact of low to average levels of job stressors on work-related thoughts and lead to the conclusion that the social context in which job stressors are experienced may alter individuals’ ability to mentally unwind from work.

Always on, never done? How the mind recovers after a stressful workday?

Many workers experience their jobs as effortful or even stressful, which can result in strain. Although recovery from work would be an adaptive strategy to prevent the adverse effects of work-related strain, many workers face problems finding enough time to rest and to mentally disconnect from work during nonwork time. What goes on in workers’ minds after a stressful workday? What is it about their jobs that makes them think about their work? This special issue aims to bridge the gap between research on recovery processes mainly examined in Occupational Health Psychology, and research on work stress and working hours, often investigated in the field of Human Resource Management. We first summarize conceptual and theoretical streams from both fields of research. In the following, we discuss the contributions of the five special issue papers and conclude with key messages and directions for further research.

Technology-assisted supplemental work, psychological detachment, and employee well-being: A daily diary study

Information and communication technologies facilitate connectivity to work-related matters after official working hours. Therefore, more and more employees engage in technology-assisted supplemental work (TASW) during recovery time. However, research on the association between TASW and well-being has shown mixed results. To shed further light on this relationship, we tested a moderated mediation model. Drawing upon the extended stressor-detachment model (Sonnentag and Fritz, 2015), we proposed that psychological detachment mediates the relationship between TASW and well-being (i.e. affect and vigor). Further, we expected appraisal to moderate the relationship between TASW and psychological detachment, as well as cognitive coping to moderate the relationship between psychological detachment and well-being. To test these hypotheses, we analyzed daily diary data from 100 employees. As hypothesized, daily psychological detachment after hours mediated the positive association between daily TASW and daily negative affect at bedtime. Contrary to expectations, daily TASW was not significantly related to daily positive affect at bedtime and daily vigor in the next morning. Additionally, we found no support for the moderating roles of appraisal and cognitive coping. These results suggest that TASW can be associated with negative well-being states via impaired recovery, but that further studies are needed to explore the ambiguous outcomes of TASW. We discuss practical implications and future research avenues regarding individual differences in the experience of TASW.

Efficacy of a smartphone-based intervention - "Holidaily" - promoting recovery behaviour in workers after a vacation: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

While work-related rumination increases the risk of acute stressors developing into chronic load reactions and adverse health, mental detachment has been suggested as a way to interrupt this chain. Despite the importance of mentally detaching from work during leisure time, workers seem to struggle to disengage and, instead, experience the constant mental representation of work-related stressors, regardless of their absence. Those who struggle with work-related rumination could benefit from an easy-access intervention that fosters mental detachment by promoting recreational activities. Especially during vacations, workers appear to naturally engage in sufficient recovery activities; however, this beneficial behaviour is not sustained. The smartphone app-based intervention "Holidaily" promotes recovery behaviour and, thus, mental detachment from work with the intension of extending the beneficial effects of workers' vacations into their daily working life.

METHODS

This randomised-controlled trial (RCT) evaluates the efficacy of "Holidaily". The Holidaily app is a German stand-alone program for mobile devices with either Android/iOS operating systems. The sample includes workers, who are awaiting to go on vacation and are randomly assigned to either the intervention (IG) or a waitlist-control group (CG). The IG receives two weeks pre-vacation access to Holidaily, while the CG receives access two weeks post-vacation. On a daily basis participants in the IG are provided with three options promoting recreational activities and beneficial recovery experiences. Online questionnaires are distributed to all participants at several timepoints. The primary outcome measure assesses participants' work-related rumination (Irritation Scale). A significant difference two weeks post-vacation is expected, favouring the IG. Secondary outcomes include symptoms of depression, insomnia severity, emotional exhaustion, thinking about work, recovery experiences, vacation specifics, work and personal characteristics. To help explain the intervention's effect, explorative analyses will investigate the mediation properties of the frequency of engaging in recreational activities and the moderation properties of Holidaily users' experiences.

DISCUSSION

If successful, workers will maintain their recovery behaviour beyond their vacation into daily working life. Findings could, therefore, provide evidence for low-intensity interventions that could be very valuable from a public-health perspective. App-based interventions have greater reach; hence, more workers might access preventative tools to protect themselves from developing adverse health effects linked to work-related rumination. Further studies will still be needed to investigate whether the vacation phenomenon of "lots of fun quickly gone" can be defied and long-term benefits attained.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

German Clinical Trials Registration DRKS00013650 . Registered retrospectively 15.01.2018.