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Goepp T, Hayes M, Di Domenico H, Hot P, Rupp T. Adding a sustained attention task to a physically demanding cycling exercise exacerbates neuromuscular fatigue and impairs cognitive performance in both normoxia and hypoxia. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024:10.1007/s00421-024-05555-7. [PMID: 39030427 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-024-05555-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/21/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Both cognitive motor dual-tasks (CMDT) protocols and hypoxic environments have been associated with significant impairments in cognitive and physical performance. We aimed to determine the effects of hypoxia on cognitive performance and neuromuscular fatigue during a highly physically demanding CMDT. METHODS Fifteen young adults completed a first session involving a cognitive task (CTLCOG) followed by cycling exercise (CTLEX) in normoxia. After that, they randomly participated in CMDT sessions in normoxia (DTNOR) and hypoxia (DTHYP). The physical exercise consisted of 20 min cycling at a "hard" perceived effort, and the cognitive task consisted of 15 min sustained attention to response time task (SART). Concurrent psycho-physiological measurements included: quadriceps neuromuscular fatigue (peripheral/central components from femoral nerve electrostimulation), prefrontal cortex (PFC) oxygenation by near-infrared spectroscopy, and perception of effort. RESULTS SART performance significantly decreased in DTNOR (-15.7 ± 15.6%, P < 0.01) and DTHYP (-26.2 ± 16.0%, P < 0.01) compared to CTLCOG (-1.0 ± 17.7%, P = 0.61). Peripheral fatigue similarly increased across conditions, whereas the ability of the central nervous system to activate the working muscles was impaired similarly in DTNOR (-6.1 ± 5.9%, P < 0.001) and DTHYP (-5.4 ± 7.3%, P < 0.001) compared to CTLEX (-1.1 ± 0.2%, P = 0.52). Exercise-induced perception of effort was higher in DTHYP vs. DTNOR and in DTNOR vs. CTLEX. This was correlated with cognitive impairments in both normoxia and hypoxia. PFC deoxygenation was more pronounced in DTHYP compared to DTNOR and CTLEX. CONCLUSION In conclusion, performing a sustained attention task together with physically challenging cycling exercise promotes central neuromuscular fatigue and impairs cognitive accuracy; the latter is particularly noticeable when the CMDT is performed in hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Goepp
- Inter-University Laboratory of Human Movement Sciences EA7424, LIBM University Savoie Mont-Blanc, Chambéry, France
| | - M Hayes
- Environmental Extremes Laboratory, School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UK
| | - H Di Domenico
- Inter-University Laboratory of Human Movement Sciences EA7424, LIBM University Savoie Mont-Blanc, Chambéry, France
| | - P Hot
- CNRS URM 5105, LPNC, Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Univ. Savoie Mont Blanc, 38000, Grenoble, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
| | - T Rupp
- Inter-University Laboratory of Human Movement Sciences EA7424, LIBM University Savoie Mont-Blanc, Chambéry, France.
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Giannì J, Crepaldi M, Fusi G, Colombi F, Brugnera A, Greco A, Compare A, Rusconi ML. A State-of-the-Art Review on the Role of Cognitive and Motor Reserve on Quality of Life: A Focus on Cardiovascular Patients in a Lifespan Perspective. Geriatrics (Basel) 2024; 9:59. [PMID: 38804316 PMCID: PMC11130798 DOI: 10.3390/geriatrics9030059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2024] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) reflect a huge and diversified condition that influences patient quality of life (QoL) both in the physical and mental aspects, especially in older adults who often present comorbidities and may be affected by cognitive decline. The concept of cognitive reserve (CR), which is built through life course experiences, has widely been considered a protective factor against cognitive decline, while the results of QoL in the field of CVDs are still controversial. In particular, there is a lack of evidence that explicitly explores the effects of CR on the QoL in CVD cases since studies have considered only single CR proxies (e.g., education) or specific cardiovascular conditions. Moreover, none of them have considered the motor reserve (MR), another recent concept that considers the amount of physical activity carried out during a lifespan. Its potential role in preventing age-related diseases has been observed, but more clarification is needed given the importance of the physical component in CVDs. The present state-of-the-art review aims to (i) examine how the literature conceives CR and its proxies in CVDs relating to QoL and (ii) integrate the concept of MR in this framework. Implications for clinical practice will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Maria Luisa Rusconi
- Department of Human and Social Sciences, University of Bergamo, 24129 Bergamo, Italy; (J.G.); (M.C.); (G.F.); (F.C.); (A.B.); (A.G.); (A.C.)
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Pucci V, La Face A, Gasteiger-Klicpera B, Mondini S. Cognitive reserve proxies for individuals with intellectual developmental disability: A scoping review. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES 2024; 37:e13204. [PMID: 38361365 DOI: 10.1111/jar.13204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cognitive reserve (CR) has not been studied in people with Intellectual Developmental Disability, a population with a high incidence of dementia. Commonly adopted CR proxies should be adapted to reflect more specifically the experiences of people with Intellectual Developmental Disability. METHOD This scoping review intended to identify CR proxies relevant to people with this condition. RESULTS Some of these were the same already detected in a population without intellectual disabilities (education, occupation, physical activity, leisure, community and social activities); others were found to be specifically relevant for this population: type of schooling, parental educational level, environmental stimulation and living place. CONCLUSIONS These proxies need to be considered in studies on CR and Intellectual Developmental Disability and in clinical practice. Research on the protective effect of CR aims to encourage policies promoting lifestyle-based educational and preventive interventions and overcome participation barriers for people with Intellectual Developmental Disability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Pucci
- Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Education and Applied Psychology, University of Padua, Padova, Italy
- Human Inspired Technology Centre (HIT), University of Padua, Padova, Italy
| | - Annalisa La Face
- Inclusive Education Unit, Institute of Education Research and Teacher Education, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Barbara Gasteiger-Klicpera
- Inclusive Education Unit, Institute of Education Research and Teacher Education, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Sara Mondini
- Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Education and Applied Psychology, University of Padua, Padova, Italy
- Human Inspired Technology Centre (HIT), University of Padua, Padova, Italy
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Pucci V, Guerra C, Barsi A, Nucci M, Mondini S. How long have you exercised in your life? The effect of motor reserve and current physical activity on cognitive performance. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2024; 30:11-17. [PMID: 37066835 DOI: 10.1017/s135561772300022x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Aging of the population encourages research on how to preserve cognition and quality of life. Many studies have shown that Physical Activity (PA) positively affects cognition in older adults. However, PA carried out throughout the individual's lifespan may also have an impact on cognition in old age. We hypothesize the existence of Motor Reserve (MR), a flexible and dynamic construct that increases over time and compensates for age-related motor and cognitive loss. METHODS Two questionnaires were developed and validated to estimate MR (Physical Activity carried out throughout the individual's lifespan) and Current Physical Activity (CPA, PA carried out in the previous 12 months). They were administered to 75 healthy individuals over 50 to verify the relation with cognition. MR and CPA include physical exercise (i.e., structured activities to improve or maintain physical fitness) and incidental PA, which we consider as any movement that leads to a metabolic cost above baseline (e.g., housekeeping, walking). In addition, the Cognitive Reserve Index questionnaire (CRI), a reliable predictor of cognitive performance, was used to measure each participant's Cognitive Reserve. RESULTS The factors that most influenced performance are Age and Cognitive Reserve, but also MR and CPA together and MR when it is the only factor. CONCLUSIONS Cognitive variability in adult and elderly populations is explained by both MR and CPA. PA training could profitably be included in new preventive and existing interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Pucci
- Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Education and Applied Psychology, FISPPA, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Human Inspired Technology Research-Centre, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Carolina Guerra
- Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Education and Applied Psychology, FISPPA, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Amanda Barsi
- Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Education and Applied Psychology, FISPPA, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Massimo Nucci
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Sara Mondini
- Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Education and Applied Psychology, FISPPA, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Human Inspired Technology Research-Centre, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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Ludyga S, Gerber M, Herold F, Schwarz A, Looser VN, Hanke M. Cortical hemodynamics and inhibitory processing in preadolescent children with low and high physical activity. Int J Clin Health Psychol 2024; 24:100438. [PMID: 38226004 PMCID: PMC10788801 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijchp.2024.100438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Preadolescent children undergo developmental changes in inhibitory control. Maintenance of high levels of moderate-to-vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA) has been suggested to promote its maturation. We compared inhibitory control between children with low and high MVPA as well as their inhibitory processing stream and changes in cortical hemodynamics. Method 109 participants aged 10 to 13 years wore accelerometers over 7 days. Those with MVPA levels of 30 min/d or less and 60 min/d or more further performed a computerized Stroop Color-Word task. Electroencephalography and functional near-infrared spectroscopy were used to record changes in inhibitory processing and cortical hemodynamics, respectively. Results An interaction of MVPA group and sex indicated better interference in highly-active boys, but the opposite pattern in girls. Independent from sex, the high compared to low MVPA group showed greater P300 and PSW amplitudes, whereas no group differences were found for N200, N450, and changes in cortical hemodynamics. Conclusion Children with high MVPA differ from their less-active peers by a distinct inhibitory processing profile, which is characterized by altered allocation of attentional resources and conflict resolution. However, these alterations do not necessarily translate into better performance, especially since MVPA is linked with higher inhibitory control in boys only.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Ludyga
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Markus Gerber
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Fabian Herold
- Faculty of Health Sciences Brandenburg, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Anja Schwarz
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Vera Nina Looser
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Manuel Hanke
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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Chen Z, Gao C, Li T, Ji X, Liu S, Xiao M. Open access dataset integrating EEG and fNIRS during Stroop tasks. Sci Data 2023; 10:618. [PMID: 37699935 PMCID: PMC10497617 DOI: 10.1038/s41597-023-02524-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Conflict monitoring and processing are crucial components of the human cognitive system, with significant implications for daily life and the diagnosis of cognitive disorders. The Stroop task, combined with brain function detection technology, has been widely employed as a classical paradigm for investigating conflict processing. However, there remains a lack of public datasets that integrate Electroencephalogram (EEG) and functional Near-infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) to simultaneously record brain activity during a Stroop task. We introduce a dual-modality Stroop task dataset incorporating 34-channel EEG (sampling frequency is 1000 Hz) and 20-channel high temporal resolution fNIRS (sampling frequency is 100 Hz) measurements covering the whole frontal cerebral cortex from 21 participants (9 females/12 males, aged 23.0 ± 2.3 years). Event-related potential analysis of EEG recordings and activation analysis of fNIRS recordings were performed to show the significant Stroop effect. We expected that the data provided would be utilized to investigate multimodal data processing algorithms during cognitive processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zemeng Chen
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Chenyang Gao
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Ting Li
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, 300192, China.
| | - Xiang Ji
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Shuyu Liu
- Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, College of Health and Human Performance, University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611, USA
| | - Ming Xiao
- Division of Information Science and Engineering, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, MALVINAS VÄG 10, 100 44, Stockholm, Sweden
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Chen Z, Ji X, Li T, Gao C, Li G, Liu S, Zhang Y. Lateralization difference in functional activity during Stroop tasks: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy and EEG simultaneous study. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1221381. [PMID: 37680451 PMCID: PMC10481867 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1221381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Conflict monitoring and processing is an important part of the human cognitive system, it plays a key role in many studies of cognitive disorders. Methods Based on a Chinese word-color match Stroop task, which included incongruent and neutral stimuli, the Electroencephalogram (EEG) and functional Near-infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) signals were recorded simultaneously. The Pearson correlation coefficient matrix was calculated to analyze brain connectivity based on EEG signals. Granger Causality (GC) method was employed to analyze the effective connectivity of bilateral frontal lobes. Wavelet Transform Coherence (WTC) was used to analyze the functional connectivity of the bilateral hemisphere and ipsilateral hemisphere. Results Results indicated that brain connectivity analysis on EEG signals did not show any significant lateralization, while fNIRS analysis results showed the frontal lobes especially the left frontal lobe play the leading role in dealing with conflict tasks. The human brain shows leftward lateralization while processing the more complicated incongruent stimuli. This is demonstrated by the higher functional connectivity in the left frontal lobe and the information flow from the left frontal lobe to the right frontal lobe. Discussion Our findings in brain connectivity during cognitive conflict processing demonstrated that the dual modality method combining EEG and fNIRS is a valuable tool to excavate more information through cognitive and physiological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zemeng Chen
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiang Ji
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, China
| | - Ting Li
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, China
| | - Chenyang Gao
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, China
| | - Guorui Li
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, China
| | - Shuyu Liu
- Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, College of Health and Human Performance, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Yingyuan Zhang
- Academy of Opto-Electronics, China Electronics Technology Group Corporation, Tianjin, China
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Liu B, Yu J, Wu J, Qin Y, Xiao W, Ren Z. Runners with better cardiorespiratory fitness had higher prefrontal cortex activity during both single and exercise-executive function dual tasks: an fNIRS study. Front Physiol 2023; 14:1246741. [PMID: 37645567 PMCID: PMC10461451 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1246741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective: This study investigated the relationship between executive function and prefrontal cortex oxygenation during exercise in young adults with different Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) levels. Methods: A total of 28 amateur runners (n = 14) and sedentary college students (n = 14) were recruited. The maximum oxygen uptake estimated for the sub-maximal intensity run (4.97 miles/h) was used to indicate the different CRF levels. After 1 week, participants must complete the Stroop and 2-Back tasks in silence while performing moderate-intensity exercise. Using 19-channel functional near-infrared spectroscopic (fNIRS) to examine changes in prefrontal cortex oxyhemoglobin. Results: There was no significant difference in the correctness of the Stroop and 2-Back tasks between the two groups during exercise, but the amateur runner group showed an acceleration in reaction time. fNIRS results showed that during the exercise 2-Back task, the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex oxyhemoglobin was higher in the amateur runner group than in the sedentary group. Conclusion: Executive function during exercise was similarly improved in participants with better fitness, suggesting that CRF provides an excellent metabolic reserve and directed allocation for cognitive tasks during exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bowen Liu
- College of Physical Education, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jingxuan Yu
- College of Physical Education, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jinlong Wu
- College of Physical Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yifan Qin
- College of Physical Education, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Wen Xiao
- College of Physical Education, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Zhanbing Ren
- College of Physical Education, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
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Arenales Arauz YL, van der Zee EA, Kamsma YPT, van Heuvelen MJG. Short-term effects of side-alternating Whole-Body Vibration on cognitive function of young adults. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0280063. [PMID: 36634088 PMCID: PMC9836316 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0280063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent research in rodents and humans revealed that Whole-Body Vibration (WBV) is beneficial for cognitive functions. However, the optimal WBV conditions are not established: contrary to vertical WBV, side-alternating WBV was not investigated before. The present study investigated the short-term effects of side-alternating WBV in standing and sitting posture on specific cognitive function of young adults. We used a balanced cross-over design. Sixty healthy young adults (mean age 21.7 ± 2.0 years, 72% female) participated. They were exposed to three bouts of two-minute side-alternating WBV (frequency 27 Hz) and three control conditions in two different sessions. In one session a sitting posture was used and in the other session a standing (semi-squat) posture. After each condition selective attention and inhibition was measured with the incongruent condition of the Stroop Color-Word Interference Test. WBV significantly (p = 0.026) improved selective attention and inhibition in the sitting posture, but not in the standing posture. The sitting posture was perceived as more comfortable, joyous and less exhaustive as compared to the standing posture. This study demonstrated that side-alternating WBV in sitting posture improves selective attention and inhibition in healthy young adults. This indicates that posture moderates the cognitive effect of WBV, although the effects are still small. Future studies should focus on the working mechanisms and further optimization of settings, especially in individuals who are unable to perform active exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y. Laurisa Arenales Arauz
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Human Physiology and Sports Physiotherapy Research Group, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Eddy A. van der Zee
- Molecular Neurobiology, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES), University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ype P. T. Kamsma
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marieke J. G. van Heuvelen
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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Mach S, Storozynski P, Halama J, Krems JF. Assessing mental workload with wearable devices - Reliability and applicability of heart rate and motion measurements. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2022; 105:103855. [PMID: 35961246 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2022.103855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Wearable devices are increasingly used for assessing physiological data. Industry 4.0 aims to achieve the real-time assessment of the workers' condition to adapt processes including the current mental workload. Mental workload can be assessed via physiological data. This paper researches the potential of wearable devices for mental workload assessment by utilizing heart rate and motion data collected with a smartwatch. A laboratory study was conducted with four levels of mental workload, ranging from none to high and during sitting and stepping activities. When sitting, a difference in the heart rate and motion data from the smartwatch was only found between no mental workload and any mental workload task. For the stepping condition, differences were found for the movement data. Based on these results, wearable devices could be useful in the future for detecting whether a mental demanding task is currently performed during low levels of physical activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Mach
- Research Group Cognitive and Engineering Psychology, Chemnitz University of Technology, Germany.
| | - Pamela Storozynski
- Research Group Cognitive and Engineering Psychology, Chemnitz University of Technology, Germany
| | - Josephine Halama
- Professorship Cognitive Psychology and Human Factors, Chemnitz University of Technology, Germany
| | - Josef F Krems
- Research Group Cognitive and Engineering Psychology, Chemnitz University of Technology, Germany
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van der Sluys ME, Marhe R, van der Laan PH, Popma A, Scherder EJA. Brief report: Free-living physical activity levels and cognitive control in multi-problem young adults. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 16:994123. [PMID: 36337855 PMCID: PMC9634251 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.994123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies indicate a positive association between physical activity and cognitive control in sedentary but healthy adults, yet not much is known about physical activity levels in multi-problem young adults. We examined the level of self-reported free-living physical activity (i.e., MET minutes per week) in an ecologically valid sample of young adults facing multiple problems, including unemployment, lack of education, frequent substance use, and history of delinquency. We compared cognitive control with an age- and sex-matched control sample. Additionally, the association between physical activity and cognitive control (i.e., response inhibition, error processing, interference effect) in the multi-problem group was examined. Physical activity and cognitive control were measured with the International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Long Form and three cognitive control experiments (i.e., Flanker, Go/NoGo, Stroop), respectively. With M = 4428 Metabolic Equivalents (METs), our multi-problem sample (n = 63) showed physical activity levels similar to the age- and sex-matched control sample from the general population (n = 62). The multi-problem young adults also showed impaired cognitive control indexed as decreased response inhibition and decreased Flanker correctness effect compared to their peers. We could not find an association between self-reported physical activity and cognitive control in the multi-problem sample. Due to the small sample size, results should be interpreted with caution. However, future dose-response studies could still use these results to further examine if within-individual increased physical activity may possibly lead to improved cognitive control in (already relatively active) multi-problem young adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Elise van der Sluys
- Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Reshmi Marhe
- Department of Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Peter H van der Laan
- Department of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Arne Popma
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Erik J A Scherder
- Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Pellegrini-Laplagne M, Dupuy O, Sosner P, Bosquet L. Effect of simultaneous exercise and cognitive training on executive functions, baroreflex sensitivity, and pre-frontal cortex oxygenation in healthy older adults: a pilot study. GeroScience 2022; 45:119-140. [PMID: 35881301 PMCID: PMC9315336 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-022-00595-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Aging is characterized by cognitive decline affecting daily functioning. To manage this socio-economic challenge, several non-pharmacological methods such as physical, cognitive, and combined training are proposed. Although there is an important interest in this subject, the literature is still heterogeneous. The superiority of simultaneous training compared to passive control and physical training alone seems clear but very few studies compared simultaneous training to cognitive training alone. The aim of this pilot study was to investigate the effect of simultaneous exercise and cognitive training on several cognitive domains in healthy older adults, in comparison with either training alone. Thirty-five healthy older adults were randomized into one of three experimental groups: exercise training, cognitive training, and simultaneous exercise and cognitive training. The protocol involved two 30-min sessions per week for 24 weeks. Cognitive performance in several domains, pre-frontal cortex oxygenation, and baroreflex sensitivity were assessed before and after the intervention. All groups improved executive performance, including flexibility or working memory. We found a group by time interaction for inhibition cost (F(2,28) = 6.44; p < 0.01) and baroreflex sensitivity during controlled breathing (F(2,25) = 4.22; p = 0.01), the magnitude of improvement of each variable being associated (r = -0.39; p = 0.03). We also found a decrease in left and right pre-frontal cortex oxygenation in all groups during the trail making test B. A simultaneous exercise and cognitive training are more efficient than either training alone to improve executive function and baroreflex sensitivity. The results of this study may have important clinical repercussions by allowing to optimize the interventions designed to maintain the physical and cognitive health of older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manon Pellegrini-Laplagne
- grid.11166.310000 0001 2160 6368Laboratoire MOVE (EA6314), Faculté des sciences du sport, Université de Poitiers, 8 allée Jean Monnet – TSA 31113 – 96073 Poitiers cedex 9, Poitiers, France
| | - Olivier Dupuy
- Laboratoire MOVE (EA6314), Faculté des sciences du sport, Université de Poitiers, 8 allée Jean Monnet - TSA 31113 - 96073 Poitiers cedex 9, Poitiers, France. .,School of Kinesiology and Physical Activity Sciences (EKSAP), Faculty of Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada.
| | - Phillipe Sosner
- grid.11166.310000 0001 2160 6368Laboratoire MOVE (EA6314), Faculté des sciences du sport, Université de Poitiers, 8 allée Jean Monnet – TSA 31113 – 96073 Poitiers cedex 9, Poitiers, France ,Mon Stade, Paris, France
| | - Laurent Bosquet
- grid.11166.310000 0001 2160 6368Laboratoire MOVE (EA6314), Faculté des sciences du sport, Université de Poitiers, 8 allée Jean Monnet – TSA 31113 – 96073 Poitiers cedex 9, Poitiers, France ,grid.14848.310000 0001 2292 3357School of Kinesiology and Physical Activity Sciences (EKSAP), Faculty of Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada
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Wu CH, Nien JT, Lin CY, Li RH, Chu CH, Kao SC, Chang YK. Cardiorespiratory fitness is associated with sustained neurocognitive function during a prolonged inhibitory control task in young adults: An ERP study. Psychophysiology 2022; 59:e14086. [PMID: 35506488 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 03/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Although beneficial associations between cardiorespiratory fitness and cognitive function have been established, whether cardiorespiratory fitness is related to behavioral and neuroelectric indices of performance during a prolonged inhibitory control task remains unknown. Young adults, categorized into High and Low Fitness groups, completed a 60-min Stroop task, while the N1 and P3 components of event-related potentials were measured. The results showed that the High Fitness group demonstrated shorter response times, regardless of the Stroop task congruency or time-on-task, than Low Fitness group. The High Fitness group also exhibited larger P3 amplitudes than the Low Fitness group, but no differences in N1 amplitudes were observed. These findings suggest that cardiorespiratory fitness during young adulthood has beneficial effects on task performance and attention allocation during an inhibitory control task, and these benefits can be sustained for 60 min.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Han Wu
- Department of Physical Education, Fu Jen Catholic University, Taipei City, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Jui-Ti Nien
- Graduate Institute of Athletics and Coaching Science, National Taiwan Sport University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Chi-Yen Lin
- Office of Physical Education, National Taiwan Oceans University, Keelung City, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Ruei-Hong Li
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei City, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Chien-Heng Chu
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei City, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Shih-Chu Kao
- Department of Health and Kinesiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Yu-Kai Chang
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei City, Taiwan, Republic of China.,Institute for Research Excellence in Learning Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei City, Taiwan, Republic of China
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Acute Effect of a Simultaneous Exercise and Cognitive Task on Executive Functions and Prefrontal Cortex Oxygenation in Healthy Older Adults. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12040455. [PMID: 35447987 PMCID: PMC9027217 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12040455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The rapid increase in population aging and associated age-related cognitive decline requires identifying innovative and effective methods to prevent it. To manage this socio-economic challenge, physical, cognitive, and combined stimulations are proposed. The superiority of simultaneous training compared to passive control and physical training alone seems to be an efficient method, but very few studies assess the acute effect on executive function. This study aimed to investigate the acute effect of simultaneous physical and cognitive exercise on executive functions in healthy older adults, in comparison with either training alone. Seventeen healthy older adults performed three experimental conditions in randomized order: physical exercise, cognitive exercise, and simultaneous physical and cognitive exercise. The protocol involved a 30 min exercise duration at 60% of theoretical maximal heart rate or 30 min of cognitive exercise or both. Executive functions measured by the Stroop task and pre-frontal cortex oxygenation were assessed before and after the intervention. We found a main effect of time on executive function and all experimental condition seems to improve inhibition and flexibility scores (<0.05). We also found a decrease in cerebral oxygenation (Δ[HbO2]) in both hemispheres after each intervention in all cognitive performance assessed (p < 0.05). Simultaneous physical and cognitive exercise is as effective a method as either physical or cognitive exercise alone for improving executive function. The results of this study may have important clinical repercussions by allowing to optimize the interventions designed to maintain the cognitive health of older adults since simultaneous provide a time-efficient strategy to improve cognitive performance in older adults.
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Salzman T, Dupuy O, Fraser SA. Effects of Cardiorespiratory Fitness on Cerebral Oxygenation in Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review. Front Physiol 2022; 13:838450. [PMID: 35309063 PMCID: PMC8931490 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.838450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Exercise is known to improve cognitive functioning and the cardiorespiratory hypothesis suggests that this is due to the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) level and cerebral oxygenation. The purpose of this systematic review is to consolidate findings from functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) studies that examined the effect of CRF level on cerebral oxygenation during exercise and cognitive tasks. Methods Medline, Embase, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science were systematically searched. Studies categorizing CRF level using direct or estimated measures of V̇O2max and studies measuring cerebral oxygenation using oxyhemoglobin ([HbO2]) and deoxyhemoglobin ([HHb]) were included. Healthy young, middle-aged, and older adults were included whereas patient populations and people with neurological disorders were excluded. Results Following PRISMA guidelines, 14 studies were retained following abstract and full-text screening. Cycle ergometer or treadmill tests were used as direct measures of CRF, and one study provided an estimated value using a questionnaire. Seven studies examined the effects of CRF on cerebral oxygenation during exercise and the remaining seven evaluated it during cognitive tasks. Increased [HbO2] in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) was observed during cognitive tasks in higher compared to lower fit individuals. Only one study demonstrated increased [HHb] in the higher fit group. Exercise at submaximal intensities revealed increased [HbO2] in the PFC in higher compared to lower fit groups. Greater PFC [HHb] was also observed in long- vs. short-term trained males but not in females. Primary motor cortex (M1) activation did not differ between groups during a static handgrip test but [HHb] increased beyond maximal intensity in a lower compared to higher fit group. Conclusion Consistent with the cardiorespiratory hypothesis, higher fit young, middle-aged, and older adults demonstrated increased cerebral oxygenation compared to lower fit groups. Future research should implement randomized controlled trials to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions that improve CRF and cerebral oxygenation longitudinally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talia Salzman
- Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Human Kinetics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Olivier Dupuy
- Laboratory MOVE, University of Poitiers, Poitiers, France
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Kinesiology and Physical Activity Sciences (EKSAP), University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Sarah Anne Fraser
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
- *Correspondence: Sarah Anne Fraser,
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Agbangla NF, Maillot P, Vitiello D. Mini-Review of Studies Testing the Cardiorespiratory Hypothesis With Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS): Overview and Perspectives. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:699948. [PMID: 34456672 PMCID: PMC8387658 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.699948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The cardiorespiratory hypothesis (CH) is one of the hypotheses used by researchers to explain the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and cognitive performance during executive functions. Despite the indubitable beneficial effect of training on brain blood flow and function that may explain the link between physical fitness and cognition and the recognition of the near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) as a reliable tool for measuring brain oxygenation, few studies investigated the CH with NIRS. It is still not well understood whether an increase in brain flow by training is translated into an increase in cerebral oxygenation. Thus, the objective of this mini-review was to summarize main results of studies that investigated the CH using the NIRS and to propose future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nounagnon Frutueux Agbangla
- Laboratory I3SP (URP 3625), Institute of Sport and Health Sciences of Paris - Université de Paris/UFR STAPS, Paris, France.,Laboratory URePSSS - SHERPAS (ULR 7369), Univ. Artois, Univ. Littoral Côte d'Opale, Univ. Lille/UFR STAPS, Liévin, France
| | - Pauline Maillot
- Laboratory I3SP (URP 3625), Institute of Sport and Health Sciences of Paris - Université de Paris/UFR STAPS, Paris, France
| | - Damien Vitiello
- Laboratory I3SP (URP 3625), Institute of Sport and Health Sciences of Paris - Université de Paris/UFR STAPS, Paris, France
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Caffey AL, Dalecki M. Evidence of residual cognitive deficits in young adults with a concussion history from adolescence. Brain Res 2021; 1768:147570. [PMID: 34216582 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2021.147570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The present study investigated executive function and sustained attention of non-athlete, young adults (ages 18-23) with a history of concussion beyond ten months post incident. Cognitive functioning was examined in 24 non-athletic, college students with a concussion history (mean age 21 yrs.; mean time and range post-injury: 4 years, 10-90 months) and 24 non-athletic controls with no history (NH) of concussion. Computerized versions of two cognitive assessment techniques were utilized to examine executive functioning (Stroop) and sustained attention capacity (D2). Primary dependent variables were response time, error score, and sustained attention score. Relationships between dependent variables and concussion metrics were also analyzed. ANOVA's revealed a significantly higher error rate in concussion history (CH) participants when performing the Stroop task (p < 0.05), including a trend for greater errors in the incongruent task condition (p < 0.05). Group measures did not differ in the sustained attention test (all p > 0.05). Nevertheless, there was a significant relationship between D2 error rate and time since concussion (p < 0.01), showing that D2 error rate was greater for participants with more time since concussion sustainment. Our findings indicate the potential for prolonged cognitive dysfunction linked to decision-making, but not to processing speed, in young adult non-athletes with a CH averaging four years post-injury. These findings may provide evidence of residual cognitive deficits in young adults with a concussion history over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail L Caffey
- School of Kinesiology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, USA
| | - Marc Dalecki
- School of Kinesiology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, USA.
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Impact of acute partial-body cryostimulation on cognitive performance, cerebral oxygenation, and cardiac autonomic activity. Sci Rep 2021; 11:7793. [PMID: 33833278 PMCID: PMC8032750 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-87089-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
We assessed the effects of a 3-min partial-body cryostimulation (PBC) exposure—where the whole body is exposed to extreme cold, except the head—on cognitive inhibition performance and the possible implications of parasympathetic cardiac control and cerebral oxygenation. In a randomized controlled counterbalanced cross-over design, eighteen healthy young adults (nine males and nine females) completed a cognitive Stroop task before and after one single session of PBC (3-min exposure at − 150 °C cold air) and a control condition (3 min at room temperature, 20 °C). During the cognitive task, heart rate variability (HRV) and cerebral oxygenation of the prefrontal cortex were measured using heart rate monitoring and near-infrared spectroscopy methods. We also recorded the cerebral oxygenation during the PBC session. Stroop performance after PBC exposure was enhanced (562.0 ± 40.2 ms) compared to pre-PBC (602.0 ± 56.4 ms; P < 0.042) in males only, accompanied by an increase (P < 0.05) in HRV indices of parasympathetic tone, in greater proportion in males compared to females. During PBC, cerebral oxygenation decreased in a similar proportion in males and females but the cerebral extraction (deoxyhemoglobin: ΔHHb) remained higher after exposure in males, only. These data demonstrate that a single PBC session enhances the cognitive inhibition performance on a Stroop task in males, partly mediated by a greater parasympathetic cardiac control and greater cerebral oxygenation. The effects of PBC on cognitive function seem different in females, possibly explained by a different sensitivity to cold stimulation.
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Mekari S, Neyedli HF, Fraser S, O’Brien MW, Martins R, Evans K, Earle M, Aucoin R, Chiekwe J, Hollohan Q, Kimmerly DS, Dupuy O. High-Intensity Interval Training Improves Cognitive Flexibility in Older Adults. Brain Sci 2020; 10:brainsci10110796. [PMID: 33137993 PMCID: PMC7693870 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci10110796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Regular aerobic exercise is associated with better executive function in older adults. It is unclear if high-intensity-interval-training (HIIT) elicits moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) or resistance training (RT). We hypothesized that HIIT would augment executive function more than MICT and RT. Methods: Sixty-nine older adults (age: 68 ± 7 years) performed six weeks (three days/week) of HIIT (2 × 20 min bouts alternating between 15 s intervals at 100% of peak power output (PPO) and passive recovery (0% PPO); n = 24), MICT (34 min at 60% PPO; n = 19), or whole-body RT (eight exercise superior improvements in executive function of older adults than moderate-intensity-continuous-training, 2 × 10 repetitions; n = 26). Cardiorespiratory fitness (i.e., V˙O2max) and executive function were assessed before and after each intervention via a progressive maximal cycle ergometer protocol and the Stroop Task, respectively. Results: The V˙O2max findings revealed a significant group by time interaction (p = 0.001) in which all groups improved following training, but HIIT and MICT improved more than RT. From pre- to post-training, no interaction in the naming condition of the Stroop Task was observed (p > 0.10). However, interaction from pre- to post-training by group was observed, and only the HIIT group exhibited a faster reaction time (from 1250 ± 50 to 1100 ± 50 ms; p < 0.001) in switching (cognitive flexibility). Conclusion: Despite similar improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness, HIIT, but not MICT nor RT, enhanced cognitive flexibility in older adults. Exercise programs should consider using HIIT protocols in an effort to combat cognitive decline in older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Said Mekari
- School of Kinesiology, Acadia University, 550. Main Street, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada; (R.M.); (K.E.); (M.E.); (R.A.); (J.C.); (Q.H.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(902)-585-1566
| | - Heather F. Neyedli
- Division of Kinesiology, Faculty of Health, School of Health and Human Performance, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 1T8, Canada; (H.F.N.); (M.W.O.); (D.S.K.)
| | - Sarah Fraser
- Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 74K, Canada;
| | - Myles W. O’Brien
- Division of Kinesiology, Faculty of Health, School of Health and Human Performance, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 1T8, Canada; (H.F.N.); (M.W.O.); (D.S.K.)
| | - Ricardo Martins
- School of Kinesiology, Acadia University, 550. Main Street, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada; (R.M.); (K.E.); (M.E.); (R.A.); (J.C.); (Q.H.)
| | - Kailey Evans
- School of Kinesiology, Acadia University, 550. Main Street, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada; (R.M.); (K.E.); (M.E.); (R.A.); (J.C.); (Q.H.)
| | - Meghan Earle
- School of Kinesiology, Acadia University, 550. Main Street, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada; (R.M.); (K.E.); (M.E.); (R.A.); (J.C.); (Q.H.)
| | - Rachelle Aucoin
- School of Kinesiology, Acadia University, 550. Main Street, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada; (R.M.); (K.E.); (M.E.); (R.A.); (J.C.); (Q.H.)
| | - Joy Chiekwe
- School of Kinesiology, Acadia University, 550. Main Street, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada; (R.M.); (K.E.); (M.E.); (R.A.); (J.C.); (Q.H.)
| | - Quinn Hollohan
- School of Kinesiology, Acadia University, 550. Main Street, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada; (R.M.); (K.E.); (M.E.); (R.A.); (J.C.); (Q.H.)
| | - Derek S. Kimmerly
- Division of Kinesiology, Faculty of Health, School of Health and Human Performance, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 1T8, Canada; (H.F.N.); (M.W.O.); (D.S.K.)
| | - Olivier Dupuy
- Laboratory MOVE (EA 6314), Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Poitiers, 86000 Poitiers, France;
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Effect of Omitting Offset Work on Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy: Comparison Between Keyboard and Voice Response. J Med Biol Eng 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s40846-020-00563-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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