Farmers' Perceptions and Drivers of Antimicrobial Use and Abuse in Commercial Pig Production, Ogun State, Nigeria

Knowledge, attitudes, practices and risk perception of cattle farmers in Namibia to antibiotic use and resistance

The misuse of antibiotics in livestock contributes to the emergence of antibiotic resistant bacteria. The development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria of animal origin is of public health concern since drug resistant pathogens in animals can spread to humans. Several countries have therefore introduced regulations to restrict the use of antibiotics in livestock. Namibia was the first African country to ban the use of antibiotics as growth promoters and restrict the use of antibiotics to the treatment of bacterial diseases with a prescription from a veterinarian. However, there are limited studies on antibiotic stewardship among farmers in the country. The aim of this study was to determine the antibiotic awareness and usage of cattle farmers in Oshikoto region Namibia. A questionnaire on antibiotic knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) was administered to 274 randomly selected cattle farmers in Namibia. To calculate the KAP scores, one mark was awarded for each correct answer and zero was awarded for incorrect or unsure responses. Respondents having ≥ 50% correct answers were considered as having good KAP scores. The KAP score ranged from 8 to 73%. Forty-three per cent of the respondents had good KAP scores. Good KAP was associated with age, farm type and education status. Semi-commercial/commercial farmers had significantly better KAP than post and homestead farmers. The findings of this study indicate that there is a need to improve antibiotic usage and resistance education programmes in order to promote rational antibiotic usage.

Antimicrobial use and resistance in food animal production: food safety and associated concerns in Sub-Saharan Africa

The use of antimicrobials in food animal (FA) production is a common practice all over the world, with even greater usage and dependence in the developing world, including Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). However, this practice which serves obvious economic benefits to producers has raised public health concerns over the last decades, thus driving the selection and dissemination of antimicrobial resistance and adversely impacting food safety and environmental health. This review presents the current and comprehensive antimicrobial usage practices in food animal production across SSA. We further highlighted the overall regional drivers as well as the public health, environmental, and economic impact of antimicrobial use in the production of food animals. Antimicrobial use is likely to increase with even exacerbated outcomes unless cost-effective, safe, and sustainable alternatives to antibiotics, especially probiotics, prebiotics, bacteriocins, antimicrobial peptides, bacteriophages, vaccines, etc. are urgently advocated for and used in food animal production in SSA. These, in addition to the implementation of strong legislation on antimicrobial use, and improved hygiene will help mitigate the public health concerns associated with antimicrobial use in food animals and improve the well-being and safety of food animals and their products.

Access to veterinary care: evaluating working definitions, barriers, and implications for animal welfare

Humans have a moral obligation to meet the physical and mental needs of the animals in their care. This requires access to resources such as veterinary care, which is integral to achieving animal welfare. However, "access" to veterinary care is not always homogenous across communities and currently lacks a consistent definition. The objectives of this scoping review were to (1) understand how "access" to veterinary care has been defined in the literature, (2) map a broad list of potential barriers that may influence access to veterinary care, and (3) identify how access to care impacts the welfare of companion and livestock animals. The literature search yielded a total of 1,044 publications, 77 of which were relevant to our inclusion criteria, and were published between 2002 and 2022. Studies were most frequently conducted in the United States (n = 17) and Canada (n = 11). Publications defining access to veterinary care (n = 10) or discussing its impacts on animal welfare (n = 13) were minimal. However, barriers to accessing veterinary care were thoroughly discussed in the literature (n = 69) and were categorized into ten themes according to common challenges and keywords, with financial limitations (n = 57), geographic location (n = 35), and limited personnel/equipment (n = 32) being the most frequently reported. The results of this scoping review informed our proposed definition of access to veterinary care. Additionally, our findings identified a need to further investigate several understudied barriers relating to access to care (i.e., veterinarian-client relationship, client identity) and to better understand how they potentially affect animal welfare outcomes.

Evaluation of antimicrobial usage in companion animals at a Veterinary Teaching Hospital in Nigeria

This study investigated various qualitative and quantitative indices of antimicrobial use (AMU) in companion animals (CAs) at a Veterinary Teaching Hospital (VTH-A) and its annex (VTH- B) from 2019 to 2021. For 694 documented animals, antimicrobial administrations (AADs) were 5, 278 times, of which 98.8% (5217) and 1.2% (61) were in dogs and cats respectively. At the VTH- A, oxytetracycline (1185 times, 22.5%) was mostly administered in dogs and metronidazole (26 times, 0.5%) in cats. Similarly, at VTH- B, oxytetracycline was administered 895 times (17.0%) in dogs while amoxicillin was given 7 times (0.1%) in cats. The prescription diversity (PD) was estimated at 0.73 and 0.82 in VTH-A and VTH-B respectively. The quantity of antimicrobials (AMs) used was 10.1 kg (A, 6.2 kg and B, 3.9 kg). Oxytetracycline administrations and quantity of metronidazole (P < 0.0001) were higher than other Active Ingredients (AIs). Furthermore, 16.5% of AIs were classified as Critically Important Antibiotics (CIA) with the highest priority, while enrofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and azithromycin fell under the World Health Organisation (WHO) Watch group. The In-Depth Interview (IDI) indicated that the high frequency of oxytetracycline administrations was linked with being the first choice for blood parasite treatment by the clinicians at the hospital. The quantity of metronidazole used was perceived to be higher due to the clinicians' preference for the treatment of acute gastroenteritis, its wider dose range, and the frequency of administration (bi-daily). The study provides baseline data on AMU indices in CAs, for the development of antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) and communication training, and policy modifications to enhance antimicrobial therapy optimization in tertiary veterinary hospital care in Nigeria.

Molecular Characterisation of Antimicrobial Resistance in E. coli Isolates from Piglets in the West Region of Romania

Antibiotics are widely used for prophylaxis and therapy, reducing morbidity and mortality produced by bacterial pathogensin pigs, including infections caused by Escherichia coli. The aim of this study was to characterise antibiotic resistance phenotypes and genotypes in E. coli isolates in pigs in West Romanian grower farms. Differential phenotypic susceptibility profiles and the contribution of resistance genes to phenotypic expression of susceptibility or resistance were evaluated. A total of 76 E. coli isolates were identified and confirmed by the MicroScan Walk Away System. The occurrence of four resistance genes, ampC, blaZ, blaTEM and tetK in strains resistant to 13 antibiotics was assessed. Of the E. coli isolates, 0% showed resistance to meropenem, 3.9% to tigecycline and 10.5% to piperacillin/tazobactam, whereas, in contrast, 100% were resistant to ampicillin and mezlocillin, 76.31% to piperacillin and 59.3% to tetracycline. The prevalence of resistance genes in resistant isolates detected by q-PCR analysis was 97.0% for ampC, 96% for blaZ, 32.9% for blaTEM and 58.8% for tetK. Penetrance (the proportion of individuals carrying a particular variant of a gene that also expresses an associated trait) was 50% for ampC (32% for amoxicillin/clavulanate, 62% for cefazolin, 32% for cefepime, 100% for cefotaxime, 56% for cefuroxime and 99% for ampicillin), 65% for blaZ (32% for amoxicillin/clavulanate and 99% for ampicillin), 51% for blaTEM (81% for piperacillin) and 44% for the tetK gene (83% for tetracycline). The result of phenotypic antibiotic resistance testing may indicate the presence of plasmid-borne resistance, with a diagnostic odds ratio of a positive phenotypic resistance for tetK being 4.52. As a management decision, the maximum penetrance admitted for using a specific antibiotic for E. coli infections in pigs is recommended to be less than 20%.

A multi-state survey of farm-level preparedness towards African swine fever outbreak in Nigeria

Outbreaks of African Swine Fever (ASF) have severe economic implications for Nigeria and result in significant loss of livelihoods. The non-availability of vaccines makes biosecurity the reliable key to reducing ASF outbreaks. This study evaluated preparedness for ASF outbreaks at the farm level among 247 pig farmers randomly selected from Abia, Akwa-Ibom, Edo, Kwara, and Oyo states. We categorized each pig farmer's ASF preparedness rating (ASF - PR) as "poor", "moderate", and "satisfactory" based on their score on an 11-item scale. Finally, a multivariable logistic regression analysis was conducted to assess the association between the socio-demographic variables and farm-level ASF preparedness. The awareness of ASF among pig farmers was very high (87.9%, n = 217). Most farmers knew the clinical signs of the disease, the modes of transmission of ASF, and correctly identified the risk factors. They also considered the need for thorough cleaning and disinfection of piggeries (87.1%, n = 189), tightened biosecurity (85.7%, n = 186), culling all ASF-affected pigs (77.9%, n = 169) as well as the ban on the transport of pigs and their products (49.8%, n = 108) as very important in ASF control. Conversely, 27.6%, (n = 60) of the farmers thought ASF could affect humans, 12% (n = 27) of them openly discarded the carcasses of dead pigs, and there was a high antibiotic usage. Most of the pig farmers used antibiotics as prophylaxis (63.6%, n = 157), chemotherapeutics (66.4%, n = 164), growth promoters (15.4%, n = 38), and wrongly so, 13% (n = 32) of them thought that antibiotics could be used to prevent and treat ASF. At the farm level, two-thirds (68.8%, n = 170) of the farmers had strict movement restrictions, and 48.6% (n = 120) routinely quarantine new pigs before introduction into their herd. Across the five states, 36% (n = 89) of the farmers had witnessed sudden death with signs consistent with ASF amongst their pigs and only 10.1% (n = 27) had confirmatory ASF diagnosis. The mean score for the farm-level ASF-PR was 6.95 ± 2.7. Approximately one-quarter of the 247 pig farmers had satisfactory ASF - PR that might help to prevent the incursion of ASF into their farms. Most farmers had moderate ASF - PR (59.5%, n = 147) whereas 17% (n = 42) had very poor ASF-PR and were most prone to an ASF outbreak. Of the sociodemographic variables, only age was significantly associated with farm-level ASF preparedness as older pig farmers especially those aged between 50 and 59 years (OR: 4.83; 95% CI: 1.10, 21.22; p = 0.037) were more likely to have satisfactory ASF - PR than the others. Our findings showed pig farmers were not adequately prepared and the next ASF outbreak could pose more significant threat to pig populations across Nigeria. Government should urgently establish minimum biosecurity measures and improve its ASF surveillance mechanisms for commercial and backyard pig production.

Assessing and improving on-farm biosecurity knowledge and practices among swine producers and veterinarians through online surveys and an educational website in Illinois, United States

There is a growing risk to the health and productivity of the Illinois and United States swine population from foreign and endemic infectious diseases. Effective on-farm biosecurity practices play a pivotal role in preventing these high-consequence pathogens from affecting swine farms. Veterinarians are essential in providing disease prevention advice to swine producers that can help them implement effective biosecurity practices on their farms. Our descriptive study objectives were to assess Illinois swine producers' and veterinarians' biosecurity perception, knowledge, and practices to identify knowledge gaps and address these by developing an online educational website. We developed two independent online questionnaires using Qualtrics^XM software. Swine producer members of the Illinois Pork Producers Association and veterinarians registered with the Illinois State Veterinary Medical Association were contacted via e-mail through their associations and asked to complete an online survey. In total, 13 swine producers across 9 Illinois counties operating 82 farms (8 managed single farms and 5 managed multiple farms) responded to the swine producer survey. Despite some biosecurity awareness among swine producers, the need for a biosecurity-related outreach program was evident. Among the 7 swine veterinarian responders, 5 predominantly treated swine (oversaw an average of 21.6 farms), and 2 were mixed animal practitioners. The swine veterinarian survey showed a disconnect between their biosecurity perception and practices. We developed a biosecurity educational website and used Google Analytics to collect website traffic and user data. The 4 months of data showed good coverage that included the highest proportion of users from the Midwest and North Carolina, the largest swine-production regions in the US, and China and Canada, the leading producers of swine worldwide. The most accessed webpage was the resources page, and the swine diseases page had the highest engagement time. Our study highlights the effectiveness of combining online surveys with an educational website to assess and improve the biosecurity knowledge of swine producers and veterinarians that can be applied to assess and improve the biosecurity knowledge and practices of other livestock farmers.

Occurrence and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of Salmonella species from poultry farms in Ibadan, Nigeria

Background: Salmonella species are among the major foodborne pathogens causing diseases of economic and public health implications in poultry and humans globally.Objective: This study aimed to determine the occurrence and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of Salmonella isolates from chickens in poultry farms in Ibadan, Southwest Nigeria.Methods: Cloacal swab samples (n = 360) were obtained from chickens randomly selected from 10 poultry farms in five local government areas of Ibadan, Oyo State, from 04 April 2018 to 20 November 2018. Bacterial identification and antimicrobial susceptibility testing were performed using established protocols. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and Pearson’s chi-squared test at P ≤ 0.05 significance level.Results: The overall prevalence of Salmonella was 21.4%. There were statistically significant associations between Salmonella prevalence and the farm location (p = 0.003), age of chickens (p  0.001), and health status of chickens (p  0.001). All Salmonella isolates (n = 77; 100.0%) were resistant to cefuroxime. The isolates were also highly resistant to cotrimoxazole (n = 74; 96.1%), chloramphenicol (n = 73; 94.8%), meropenem (n = 72; 93.5%), gentamicin (n = 69; 89.6%), and tetracycline (n = 64; 83.1%).Conclusion: The presence of drug-resistant Salmonella in commercial layer chickens in Ibadan is a potential threat to consumer health as it increases the risk of carcass contamination and pathogen propagation, and limits the options to control and treat infections in humans and animals. Well-integrated national surveillance systems for monitoring Salmonella and antimicrobial resistance in poultry are critical. 

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Risk Perception of Broiler Grow-Out Farmers on Antimicrobial Use and Resistance in Oyo State, Nigeria

Assessing knowledge, attitudes, and risk perception of Nigerian broiler grow-out farmers (n = 152) to antimicrobial resistance (AMR) with a five sectional purposive-structured-questionnaire: demographics; knowledge; attitudes; risk-perception; and response to regulation of antimicrobial practices. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square test, and binary logistic regression. Respondents’ knowledge score, in total, was lower than average, with all (100%) respondents having the understanding that antibiotics kill/reduce bacteria, most participants (>73%) believing that feeding antibiotics to broiler chickens is a necessity for weight gain, and many (>69%) thinking that no negative side-effects exist with the use of antibiotics. Poor attitude towards antimicrobial usage was prevalent (>63%) with unsatisfactory performance in most instruments: >60% of farmers reported using antimicrobials every week and still use antimicrobials when birds appear sick, and most (>84%) arbitrarily increase the drug dosages when used. However, a satisfactory performance score was reported (68%) in risk perception of AMR with >63% perceiving that inappropriate use of antibiotics is the main factor causing the emergence of resistant bacteria; >65.8% expressed that AMR in broiler chickens is not essential for public health, that AMR cannot develop from broiler bacteria diseases, that increasing the frequency of antimicrobial use cannot increase AMR in future, and that usage cannot lead to antibiotic residue in broiler-meat products leading to AMR development in human. None of the respondents were aware of any regulation for monitoring antimicrobial use. Significant factors associated with knowledge, attitudes, and risk perception of antimicrobial use and resistance among broiler grow-out farmers include marital status, farm category, education, educational specialization, sales target, growth duration/cycle, broiler stocking batch, and feed source. Identified gaps exist in AMR awareness among Nigerian broiler farmers and should be targeted through stakeholders’ participation in combatting AMR threats.

Fijian Farmers' Attitude and Knowledge Towards Antimicrobial Use and Antimicrobial Resistance in Livestock Production Systems–A Qualitative Study

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global health issue affecting humans and livestock. To mitigate AMR risks, responsible use of antimicrobials in livestock production systems have been advocated. Studies have reported patterns of antimicrobial use (AMU) in livestock production systems; however, there is limited information on the drivers of AMU and AMR. Therefore, this study aimed to explore and understand the attitude and knowledge of Fijian livestock farmers on AMU and AMR. Livestock farmers and managers from the Central and Western divisions of Viti Levu, Fiji were recruited using purposive and snowball sampling methods. Face-to-face one-to-one semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted. Interview questions were informed by the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). Interview transcripts were analyzed inductively using reflexive thematic analysis and deductively using the TPB framework. A total of 19 cattle and poultry farmers took part. Our analysis generated four themes: (1) Uninformed use of antimicrobials and unaware of AMR, (2) Safeguarding livestock and generating income source as primary motivators for using antimicrobials (3) Medicine shortage results in hoarding and self-prescribing, and (4) Farm decisions on AMU and livestock management influenced by foreign farmers and veterinarians. Livestock farmers used medicines in livestock production; however, they could not differentiate amongst different types of medicine, including antimicrobials. Antimicrobials were used to prevent diseases in livestock and promote production of food and financial security but without any awareness of the risks of AMR. Additionally, farmers hoarded and self-prescribed medicines. Farmers rationed antimicrobials by not completing the entire course of antibiotics to save them for future use. Based on past experiences, farmers expressed dissatisfaction with the veterinary services provided by the government. They sought help online and from foreign farmers and veterinarians. We propose the need for antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) programmes focused on promoting rational use of antimicrobials and awareness of AMR amongst farmers in the Fijian livestock production systems. These programmes need to consider the anthropological, socio-cultural, economic, and environmental factors driving AMU. Future studies are underway to explore the attitude and knowledge of Fijian veterinarians, para-veterinarians and pharmacists on AMU and AMR to gain a broader systems knowledge to inform the design of AMS programmes.

Multi-Drug Resistant Escherichia coli, Biosecurity and Anti-Microbial Use in Live Bird Markets, Abeokuta, Nigeria

Live bird markets (LBM) remain a critical link from farm to fork in the poultry value chain, which oftentimes promotes indiscriminate antimicrobial use (AMU) and resistance (AMR). In this study, we assessed biosecurity practices, AMU, and associated these with multidrug resistant (MDR) E. coli in LBMs in Abeokuta, Ogun State. A cross-sectional survey among live bird sellers (LBS) in eight LBMs was conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire. Also, cloacal samples (n = 200) were randomly collected and pooled for bacteriological detection of MDR E. coli in live chickens of consenting LBS. Susceptibility to 14 antimicrobials belonging to 6 different classes was determined using the disk diffusion method. Biosecurity level and AMU were generally low. LBS less than 46 years were 6.8- fold more likely to fall within the poor biosecurity level (Crudes odds ratio = 6.8; 95% CI; 1.20-38.56; p = 0.03) than others. An informal or primary school education increased the odds of having a poor practice of AMU by 15.1 folds (Crudes odds ratio = 15.1; 95% CI; 2.73-84.18; p = 0.002) than those with secondary or tertiary. The prevalence of E. coli and MDR E. coli at the LBM level were 80% and 56.3%, respectively. Extremely high resistance rates were observed for ceftazidime (96.9%) and imipenem (90.6%). The odds of MDR E. coli increased eight-fold in poultry kept by LBS who use AMs as prophylaxis. This current data could be useful for the development of targeted behavioral risk communication and mitigation strategies for AMR to impede the potential horizontal transfer of AMR genes to humans through animal-sourced food.

Phenotypic detection, antimicrobial susceptibility and virulence profile of staphylococci in the pig production setting, Makurdi, Nigeria

Livestock, particularly pigs, have increasingly been recognized as important reservoirs for zoonotic transmission of pathogenic bacteria, including staphylococci. Livestock production systems in developing countries of sub-Saharan Africa, including Nigeria, are characterized by high misuse/abuse of antimicrobials and a close association between humans and these animals, which promotes the emergence and transmission of resistant and potentially virulent bacteria. In the present study, we investigated the occurrence and characteristics (species distribution, virulence and resistance profile) of staphylococci from smallholder backyard pig farms, slaughter slabs and pig handlers in Makurdi, Nigeria. A total of 330 nasal swabs originating from 300 pigs and 30 in-contact humans were collected and processed. One hundred and thirteen samples [34.2 %; 95 % confidence interval (CI): 29.1–39.6] comprising 103 (34.3 %; 95 % CI: 29.0–40.0) and 10 (33.3 %; 95 % CI: 17.3–52.8 %) samples from pigs and humans, respectively, were positive for staphylococci, yielding 120 isolates (pigs n=110, humans n=10). The 120 isolates were distributed into 15 species with Staphylococcus aureus (n=25) followed by Staphylococcus cohnii (n=19) and Staphylococcus sciuri (n=14) occurring more frequently. All isolates were resistant to β-lactam (100 %) antibiotics. Resistance to some critical antimicrobials, including linezolid (22 %), vancomycin (19.2 %), gentamicin (7.5%) and the fluoroquinolones ciprofloxacin (75.8 %) and enrofloxacin (66.7 %), was also observed. Majority (99.2 %) of the isolates displayed a multidrug resistance phenotype with the AMP-C-CIP-E-ENR-FOX-OX-P-S-SXT-TE phenotype being predominant. Overall, 70 % of the isolates expressed the methicillin resistance phenotype, out of which 20 % (n=17) were MRSA. Resistance to serum bactericidal activity and biofilm production were respectively observed in 45 (100 %) and 5 (11.3 %) of the coagulase-positive staphylococci. Our findings demonstrated the occurrence of a high diversity of staphylococci expressing multidrug resistance and potentially virulent phenotypes among healthy swine and pig handlers in small-scale backyard farms in North-Central Nigeria. These findings underscore the potential role of pig production settings in the emergence and dissemination of potentially virulent staphylococci and the importance of the development of antimicrobial resistance monitoring systems/implementation of control measures in developing countries. Proper hygienic practices and control of indiscriminate use and misuse of antibiotics are recommended.

Antimicrobial use in agriculture: critical review of the factors influencing behaviour

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global health emergency affecting humans and animals, diminishing the effectiveness of medication used to treat illness. The agri-food sector has attracted increased attention for imprudent antimicrobial use (AMU) and its contribution to AMR. Thus, ascertaining farmers' and veterinarians' behaviours surrounding AMU is essential to address imprudent AMU and generate behaviour change within the agri-food sector. Therefore, the aim of this critical review is to investigate, assess and collate the current body of evidence to identify psychosocial factors including knowledge, understanding, perceptions, attitudes and behaviours surrounding AMU. Database searches were limited to articles utilizing qualitative and quantitative methodologies, available in English with no restriction on publication year. Of the 1156 articles identified, 103 were retained for this review. Findings on the psychosocial aspects were thematically analysed. Five key themes emerged from the data: (i) knowledge and awareness of antimicrobials; (ii) attitudes towards antimicrobials; (iii) influential relationships; (iv) resources; and (v) factors influencing AMU. Results indicated that to overcome barriers experienced by key stakeholders, a carefully considered, evidence-based approach, incorporating behaviour change theory, is required when designing intricate interventions/strategies, in order to elicit successful and sustained AMU behaviour change.

Biosecurity and Antimicrobial Use Practices in Live Bird Markets within Abeokuta Metropolis, Southwest, Nigeria: A Preliminary Survey

The development of an antimicrobial stewardship plan (AMSP) for live bird sellers (LBS) requires an understanding of the current biosecurity status, antimicrobial use (AMU) and the practices involved in live bird selling (e.g., drivers, sellers, etc.) which is a direct source of poultry meat for human consumption. Seven Live Bird Markets (LBMs) within Abeokuta, Ogun State were surveyed using a semi-structured questionnaire. Data on LBMs characteristics, LBS demographics, biosecurity, and AMU practices, awareness on Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR), as well as preferred channels of information on antimicrobial stewardship were gathered. A total of 40 consenting LBS with 82.5% female and 17.5% male participants were included in the study. The participants’ mean age was 45.3 years (SD±11.9, range: 23-70 years). Laying hens, broilers, and cockerels were the main poultry types sold by LBS. Antimicrobials (AMs) were used for growth promotion (57.5%), therapeutic (40.0%), and prophylactic (2.5%) purposes. Tetracycline, metronidazole, and chloramphenicol were the most frequently used AMs. The majority of the participants (90.0%) have treated birds based on their empirical experience, with little or no inputs from veterinarians. Biosecurity and AMU practices were generally low (54.0% and 34.0%, respectively). The contact with veterinarians was associated with satisfactory biosecurity practices (p=0.049). No significant factors were found to be linked with AMU. This study has provided recent evidence-based data on practices in poultry management among LBS in Abeokuta, Ogun state. The findings would be useful for policy decisions and the development of AMSP on prudent AMU among LBS.

Knowledge and practice of cattle handlers on antibiotic residues in meat and milk in Kwara State, Northcentral Nigeria

OBJECTIVES

Antibiotics are important for improving animal health and production. However, the deposition of its residues in food of animal origin intended for human consumption at non-permissible levels has generated global health concern and the need to tackle this using the "One Health Approach". This study assessed the knowledge and practice of 286 cattle handlers in Kwara State, Nigeria.

METHODS

A web-based cross sectional online survey using a semi-structured questionnaire was conducted from November to December, 2019. Univariate, bivariate and multivariate analyses were performed at 95% confidence interval to determine predictors of good knowledge and practices towards Antibiotic Residues in Meat and Milk among cattle handlers.

RESULTS

This study revealed that majority (52.7% n = 165/286) of the cattle handlers were not aware of antibiotic residues. Knowledge and practices regarding antibiotic residues were generally poor among the study population; 36.7% and 35.5% had satisfactory knowledge and practice respectively. The age (p = 0.026), gender (p = 0.006) and business duration (p = 0.001) of participants were significantly associated with their knowledge of antimicrobial residues. The effect of education on knowledge was modified by age. The odds of having poor knowledge on antibiotic residues increased 4 times among participants who were ≤40 years old than those above 40 years (Stratum Specific OR = 3.65; CI = 1.2, 11.1; p = 0.026). Knowledge levels of participants were statistically associated with their practice levels p<0.05 (OR = 2.43; CI = 1.45. 4.06; p = 0.0006).

CONCLUSION

This implies that poor knowledge is a risk factor to having poor practice among cattle handlers. Deliberate efforts towards educating cattle farmers on best farm practices in antibiotic use would prevent antibiotic residues in meat and milk. Also, an effective surveillance system for monitoring the use of veterinary drugs in Kwara State, Nigeria is crucial.

The varying effects of antibiotics on gut microbiota

Antibiotics are lifesaving therapeutic drugs that have been used by human for decades. They are used both in the fight against bacterial pathogens for both human and for animal feeding. However, of recent, their effects on the gut microbial compositions and diversities have attracted much attention. Existing literature have established the dysbiosis (reduced diversity) in the gut microbiota in association with antibiotic and antibiotic drug doses. In the light of spelling out the varying effects of antibiotic use on gut microbiota, this review aimed at given an account on the degree of gut microbial alteration caused by common antibiotics. While some common antibiotics are found to destroy the common phyla, other debilitating effects were observed. The effects can be attributed to the mode of mechanism, the class of antibiotic, the degree of resistance of the antibiotic used, the dosage used during the treatment, the route of administration, the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics properties and the spectrum of the antibiotic agent. Health status, stress or the type of diet an individual feeds on could be a great proportion as confounding factors. While it is understood that only the bacterial communities are explored in the quest to establishing the role of gut in health, other gut microbial species are somehow contributing to the dysbiosis status of the gut microbiota. Until now, long term natural fluctuations like diseases outbreaks and mutations of the strain might as well rendered alteration to the gut independent of antibiotic treatments.

How sawmill wastes impact surface water, sediment, macrobenthic invertebrates, and fish: a case study of the Lagos lagoon, Okobaba Area, South-western Nigeria

The Okobaba area of the Lagos Lagoon, Nigeria, is characterised by sawmilling activities which are potential threats to resident aquatic organisms. This study was aimed at evaluating the effect of sawmilling activities on the environmental quality of the Lagos lagoon at Okobaba area, Lagos, Nigeria. Surface water, sediment, macrobenthic invertebrates, and fish species were sampled monthly from six stations for 3 months (July-September 2018). Relevant stakeholders were administered a cross-sectional questionnaire to determine their knowledge of the environmental effects of their activities. Environmental samples were analysed following standard methods. Descriptive and inferential statistics were performed using SPSS 20.0 and PAST 1.97. Results showed that surface water dissolved oxygen and chemical oxygen demand were significantly lower, while sediment total organic matter and nitrates were significantly higher at the test site compared to the reference site. A total of 389 macrobenthic invertebrates comprising eight species and two macrobenthic invertebrates comprising one species as well as 121 fishes comprising nine species and 70 fishes comprising nine (9) species were recorded at the reference and test sites respectively. About 46.3% of respondents alluded to improper waste disposal as the major cause of pollution at the test site among others, 66.7% responded that wastes were disposed of by burning among other disposal methods, and 66.6% agreed that the sawmilling activities contributed to reduction of aquatic animal population. We recommend urgent regulatory intervention to address the indiscriminate discharge of wastes and facilitate adequate environmental risk advocacy to sustain life below water (United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14).

Antibiotics Use in Food Animal Production: Escalation of Antimicrobial Resistance: Where Are We Now in Combating AMR?

The use of antibiotics has been very beneficial to human health, animal wellbeing, and food production, however, there are no alternatives to antimicrobials in treating infectious diseases. Their use can contribute to the development of antimicrobial resistance, but the world has realized the need to combat antimicrobial resistance in recent decades due to the continued escalation of the problem jeopardizing human and veterinary medicine and food and environmental safety. Understanding the AMR and judicious use of antimicrobials are critical, and one health approach involving several sectors and multiple disciplines is important to tackle the problem. National, regional, and global action plans have been instigated to tackle the escalation of AMR. Antimicrobials are frequently used in food animal production. Therefore, food animal producers are important participants to prevent overuse and misuse of antimicrobials. Recent regulations to address the challenges have not been perceived well in animal farming communities. More awareness regarding these action plans and understanding the impact of AMR are needed. A nationwide survey of perceptions of food animal producers regarding AMR mitigation approaches should be conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the current policies regarding antibiotics use and AMR. These outcomes should be incorporated in future policies and awareness campaigns targeting food animal producers.

Prevalence and Traits of Mobile Colistin Resistance Gene Harbouring Isolates from Different Ecosystems in Africa

The mobile colistin resistance (mcr) gene threatens the efficacy of colistin (COL), a last-line antibiotic used in treating deadly infections. For more than six decades, COL is used in livestock around the globe, including Africa. The use of critically important antimicrobial agents, like COL, is largely unregulated in Africa, and many other factors militate against effective antimicrobial stewardship in the continent. Currently, ten mcr genes (mcr-1 to mcr-10) have been described. In Africa, mcr-1, mcr-2, mcr-3, mcr-5, mcr-8, and mcr-9 have been detected in isolates from humans, animals, foods of animal origin, and the environment. These genes are harboured by Escherichia coli, Klebsiella, Salmonella, Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas, Aeromonas, Alcaligenes, and Acinetobacter baumannii isolates. Different conjugative and nonconjugative plasmids form the backbone for mcr in these isolates; however, mcr-1 and mcr-3 have also been integrated into the chromosome of some African strains. Insertion sequences (ISs) (especially ISApl1), either located upstream or downstream of mcr, class 1 integrons, and transposons, are drivers of mcr in Africa. Genes coding multi/extensive drug resistance and virulence are colocated with mcr on plasmids in African strains. Transmission of mcr to/among African strains is nonclonal. Contact with mcr-habouring reservoirs, the consumption of contaminated foods of animal/plant origin or fluid, animal-/plant-based food trade and travel serve as exportation, importation, and transmission routes of mcr gene-containing bacteria in Africa. Herein, the current status of plasmid-mediated COL resistance in humans, food-producing animals, foods of animal origin, and environment in Africa is discussed.

Microfluidic filter device coupled mass spectrometry for rapid bacterial antimicrobial resistance analysis

The problem of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is becoming increasingly serious. Bacteria producing extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL), which can hydrolyze beta-lactam antibiotics, are among the most important drug resistant bacteria. Rapid AMR analysis methods are essential for identifying antibiotic resistant bacteria, which is of significant positive value to the clinical therapy of infectious disease. We developed a platform which integrates a sandwich microfluidic filter device with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). Bacterial cells were loaded in the sandwich microfluidic chip and antibiotic drugs were injected to pass through the blocked bacterial cells. By online ESI-MS analysis of the antibiotic drugs and their hydrolysis products, the AMR of the bacteria can be assessed within 30 minutes. Four Escherichia coli strains, namely two ESBL-positive and two ESBL-negative, were successfully discriminated using ampicillin and the third generation cephalosporin ceftriaxone. Considering the simplicity and high efficiency of the assay, the microfluidic chip integrated online ESI-MS system is promising in the rapid clinical diagnosis of ESBL-producing bacteria.