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Koricho M, Zerayacob T, Abebe F, Argaw M, Mengistu D, Birhane F, Negash S, Haileselassie A, Gatome-Munyua A. An Assessment of Provider Payment Mechanisms (PPMs) in Ethiopia: Implications for Redesign of PPMs and Progress Toward Universal Health Coverage. Health Syst Reform 2024; 10:2377620. [PMID: 39028638 DOI: 10.1080/23288604.2024.2377620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 07/04/2024] [Indexed: 07/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Ethiopia has made great strides in improving population health but sustaining health system and population health improvements in the current fiscal environment is challenging. Provider payment, as a function of purchasing, is a tool to use limited health resources better. This study describes the design and implementation of Ethiopia's provider payment mechanisms (PPMs) and how they influence health system objectives and contribute to universal health coverage goals. The research team adapted the framework and analytical tools of the Joint Learning Network for Universal Health Coverage guide for assessing PPMs. Data were collected through literature review and key informant interviews with 11 purchasers and 17 health care providers. Content analysis was used to describe PPM design and implementation arrangements, and thematic analysis was used to distill effects on equity in resource distribution and access to care, efficiency, quality of care, and financial sustainability. The study revealed the PPMs had positive and negative consequences. Line-item budgets were perceived to be predictable and sustainable but had little effect on efficiency and provider performance. Fee-for-service was perceived to have negative effects on efficiency and financial sustainability but viewed positively on its ability to incentivize quality health services. Capitation and performance-based financing effects were viewed positively on equity in distribution of resources and quality respectively, but both were perceived negatively on their high administrative burden to providers. Ethiopia may consider a more nuanced approach to design blended provider payment to mitigate negative consequences while providing incentives for better quality of care and efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mideksa Koricho
- School of Nursing and Public Health, Discipline of Public Health, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Fenot Associates, Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Oromia Health Bureau, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | | | | | | | | | - Felegush Birhane
- Providers affairs and quality assurance lead executive office, Health Insurance Service, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Shewa Negash
- Providers affairs and quality assurance lead executive office, Health Insurance Service, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Zerfu TA, Tareke AA, Biadgilign S. Challenges and experience of the Ethiopian rural health extension program: implications for reform and revitalization. BMC Health Serv Res 2023; 23:1309. [PMID: 38012613 PMCID: PMC10683286 DOI: 10.1186/s12913-023-10253-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite remarkable gains over the past decade, mounting evidence suggests that Ethiopia's rural health extension program (HEP) is facing serious implementation challenges. We investigated the current and potential future program design and implementation challenges of Ethiopia's rural HEP based on the lived experiences of health extension workers (HEW) implementing the program at the grassroots level. METHODS We employed a longitudinal qualitative exploration linked to a larger cluster-randomized trial (RCT) which was implemented in 282 villages randomly selected from 18 Kebeles of the Gedeo zone, southern Ethiopia. Data were collected using in-depth interviews with key informants, focus group discussion, and passive observation of program implementation. The data were analyzed manually using a thematic framework analysis approach. Themes and sub-themes were generated by condensing, summarizing, and synthesizing data collected in the field in the form of extended notes and field observation checklists. FINDINGS Despite considerable gains in availing basic health services to the rural population, HEP seems to suffer serious design and implementation flaws that demand thoughtful and immediate adjustment. The design constraints span from the number and type of intervention packages to the means of dissemination (vehicle) as well as the target population emphasized. As such, some low-cost high-impact interventions that were strongly desired by the community were overlooked, while others were inappropriately packed. The means of distribution - female health extension workers trained with basic prevention skills, were lacking essential skills. They also had high burnout rates and with little engagement with men, were repeatedly mentioned flaws of the program demanding revitalization. Furthermore, the sheer structure of HEP precluded adult and adolescent men, non-reproductive women, and the elderly. CONCLUSION Despite significant gains over the last couple of months, Ethiopia's rural HEP appears to have reached a tipping point that requires a comprehensive revamp of the program package, means of distribution, and target beneficiaries rather than the "usual" tweaks to reap maximum benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taddese Alemu Zerfu
- International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Dilla University, Dilla, Ethiopia
| | - Amare Abera Tareke
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Wollo University, P.O.Box 1149, Dessie, Ethiopia.
- Department of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Wollo University, Dessie, Ethiopia.
| | - Sibhatu Biadgilign
- Independent Public Health Analyst and Research Consultant, PO.BOX 24414, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Tiruneh GT, Hirschhorn LR, Fesseha N, Emaway D, Eifler K, Betemariam W. Care-seeking behaviours of mothers and associated factors for possible serious bacterial infection in young infants during COVID-19 pandemic in Ethiopia: mixed-methods formative research. BMJ Open 2023; 13:e073118. [PMID: 37407046 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2023-073118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/07/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Implementation research was employed to examine rates and contextual factors associated with mothers' care-seeking for their sick neonates and identify challenges for community-based possible serious bacterial infection (PSBI) services access and implementation during the COVID-19 pandemic. DESIGN We conducted formative research involving household survey and programmatic qualitative study. SETTING This formative study was conducted in Dembecha and Lume woredas of Amhara and Oromia regions. PARTICIPANTS Data were captured from 4262 mothers aged 15-49 years who gave live birth 2-14 months before data collection, and interviews with 18 programme managers and 16 service providers in April to May 2021. ANALYSIS A multilevel regression model was employed to identify predictors of maternal care-seeking for PSBI and thematic qualitative analysis to inform strategy development to strengthen PSBI implementation. RESULTS Overall, 12% (95% CI 11.0% to 12.9%) and 8% (95% CI 7.9% to 9.6%) of mothers reported any newborn illness and severe neonatal infection (PSBI), respectively. More than half of mothers sought formal medical care, 56% (95% CI 50.7% to 60.8%) for PSBI. Women who received postnatal care within 6 weeks (adjusted OR (AOR) 2.08; 95% CI 1.12 to 3.87) and complete antenatal care (ie, weight measured, blood pressure taken, urine and blood tested) (AOR 2.04; 95% CI 1.12 to 3.75) had higher odds of care-seeking for PSBI. Conversely, fear of COVID-19 (AOR 0.27; 95% CI 0.15 to 0.47) and residing more than 2 hours of walking distance from the health centre (AOR 0.39; 95% CI 0.16 to 0.93) were negatively associated with care-seeking for severe newborn infection. Multiple pre-existing health system bottlenecks were identified from interviews as barriers to PSBI service delivery and exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. CONCLUSION We found gaps in and factors associated with care-seeking behaviour of mothers for their sick young infants including fear of COVID-19 and pre-existing health system-level barriers. The findings of the study were used to design and implement strategies to mitigate COVID-19 impacts on management of PSBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gizachew Tadele Tiruneh
- Improving Primary Healthcare Project, JSI Research & Training Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Behavioral Science, Addis Continental Institute of Public Health, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Lisa R Hirschhorn
- Feinberg School of Medicine and Havey Institute of Global Health, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Nebreed Fesseha
- Improving Primary Healthcare Project, JSI Research & Training Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Dessalew Emaway
- Improving Primary Healthcare Project, JSI Research & Training Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Kristin Eifler
- International Division, JSI Research & Training Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Wuleta Betemariam
- Center for Healthy Women, Children, and Communities, JSI Research & Training Institute, Washington, DC, USA
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Daka DW, Wordofa MA, Berhanu D, Persson LÅ, Woldie M. Quality of sick child management by health extension workers: role of a complex improvement intervention. BMC Health Serv Res 2023; 23:165. [PMID: 36797722 PMCID: PMC9933397 DOI: 10.1186/s12913-023-09131-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite the expansion of the Integrated Community Case Management services for childhood illness, quality and utilization of services have remained low. To address the problem, the Government of Ethiopia introduced a complex intervention that included community engagement, capacity building of health workers and enhanced district-level ownership of sick child management. We examined whether this complex intervention was associated with improved management of sick children by health extension workers. METHODS The study was conducted in four Ethiopian regions. A baseline survey was conducted in 26 intervention and 26 comparison districts from December 2016 to February 2017, followed by an end-line survey 24 months later. We observed health extension workers' consultations of sick 2-59 months old children. The analysis has evaluated if children with pneumonia, diarrhoea and malnutrition were assessed, classified and treated according to guidelines, and included difference-in-difference analyses. RESULTS We observed 1325 consultations of sick children. At baseline, 86% of the sick children with cough in the intervention areas and 85% in comparison areas were assessed according to the guidelines, without any change at end-line associated with the intervention (difference-in-difference = -21%, p = 0.55). Sixty-two percent of children were assessed for dehydration at baseline in intervention and 47% in comparison areas, with no improvement associated with the intervention. Similarly, 87% of sick children in intervention and 91% in comparison areas were assessed for malnutrition, with no change over time associated with the intervention (difference-in-difference = 5%, p = 0.16). Appropriate pneumonia treatment with antibiotics declined and diarrhea treatment increased in both areas. Half of the malnourished children received ready-to-use therapeutic foods without any improvement associated with the intervention. CONCLUSION The intervention was not associated with improved quality of the health extension workers' management of sick children. The lack of association may be linked to low fidelity in the implementation of the intervention. Our findings suggest that training healthcare providers without continued clinical mentoring and support does not improve the quality of care. Community-based programs can be strengthened by ensuring high coverage and continued clinical mentorships, supportive supervision, and supply of medicines and other essential commodities. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER ISRCTN12040912, retrospectively registered on 19/12/ 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawit Wolde Daka
- Faculty of Public Health, Department of Health Policy and Management, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia.
| | - Muluemebet Abera Wordofa
- grid.411903.e0000 0001 2034 9160Faculty of Public Health, Department of Population and Family Health, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
| | - Della Berhanu
- grid.452387.f0000 0001 0508 7211Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia ,grid.8991.90000 0004 0425 469XThe London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Lars Åke Persson
- grid.452387.f0000 0001 0508 7211Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia ,grid.8991.90000 0004 0425 469XThe London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Mirkuzie Woldie
- grid.411903.e0000 0001 2034 9160Faculty of Public Health, Department of Health Policy and Management, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia ,Fenot Project, University of British Columbia, School of Public Health and Population, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Higi AH, Debelew GT, Dadi LS. Perception and Experience of Health Extension Workers on Facilitators and Barriers to Maternal and Newborn Health Service Utilization in Ethiopia: A Qualitative Study. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph181910467. [PMID: 34639767 PMCID: PMC8508329 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph181910467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background: Health extension workers (HEWs) have substantial inputs to reduce maternal and newborn morbidity and mortality in Ethiopia. However, their perceptions and experiences were not well understood. Therefore, this study aimed to explore their perceptions and experiences on facilitators and barriers to maternal and newborn health services in Ethiopia. Methods: A descriptive qualitative study was conducted from 8–28 April 2021 in Oromia, Amhara and Southern Nation, Nationality, and People’s Regional State of Ethiopia. Focused group discussions were made with purposively selected 60 HEWs. The data were transcribed verbatim and translated into English. An inductive thematic analysis was carried out using Atlas ti.7.1. The findings were presented in major themes, categories, and sub-categories with supporting quote(s). Results: The findings were categorized into two major themes (i.e., facilitators and barriers) and seven sub-themes. Community-related facilitators encompass awareness and behavior at the individual, family, and community. Significant others such as traditional birth attendants, religious leaders, women developmental armies, and kebele chairman substantially contributed to service utilization. Availability/access to infrastructures such as telephone, transportation services, and solar energy systems facilitated the service utilization. Furthermore, health facility-related facilitators include the availability of HEWs; free services; supervision and monitoring; maternity waiting rooms; and access to ambulance services. Maternal and newborn health services were affected by community-related barriers (i.e., distance, topography, religious and socio-cultural beliefs/practices, unpleasant rumors, etc.,), health facility-related barriers (i.e., health worker’s behaviors; lack of logistics; lack of adequate ambulance service, and placement and quality of health post), and infrastructure (i.e., lack or poor quality of road and lack of water). Conclusions: The HEWs perceived and experienced a wide range of facilitators and barriers that affected maternal and newborn health services. The study findings warrant that there was a disparity in behavioral factors (awareness, beliefs, and behaviors) among community members, including pregnant women. This underscores the need to design health education programs and conduct social and behavioral change communication interventions to address individuals, families, and the broader community to enhance maternal and newborn health service utilization. On the other hand, the health sector should put into practice the available strategies, and health workers provide services with empathy, compassion, and respect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alemayehu Hunduma Higi
- Department of Population and Family Health, Institute of Health, Jimma University, Jimma P.O. Box 378, Ethiopia;
- Correspondence:
| | - Gurmesa Tura Debelew
- Department of Population and Family Health, Institute of Health, Jimma University, Jimma P.O. Box 378, Ethiopia;
| | - Lelisa Sena Dadi
- Department of Epidemiology, Institute of Health, Jimma University, Jimma P.O. Box 937, Ethiopia;
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Getachew T, Abebe SM, Yitayal M, Bergström A, Persson LA, Berhanu D. Health extension workers' perceived health system context and health post preparedness to provide services: a cross-sectional study in four Ethiopian regions. BMJ Open 2021; 11:e048517. [PMID: 34108171 PMCID: PMC8191611 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-048517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The health system context influences the implementation of evidence-based practices and quality of healthcare services. Ethiopia aims at reaching universal health coverage but faces low primary care utilisation and substandard quality of care. We assessed the health extension workers' perceived context and the preparedness of health posts to provide services. SETTING This study was part of evaluating a complex intervention in 52 districts of four regions of Ethiopia. This paper used the endline data collected from December 2018 to February 2019. PARTICIPANTS A total of 152 health posts and health extension workers serving selected enumeration areas were included. OUTCOME MEASURES We used the Context Assessment for Community Health (COACH) tool and the Service Availability and Readiness Assessment tool. RESULTS Internal reliability of COACH was satisfactory. The dimensions community engagement, work culture, commitment to work and leadership all scored high (mean 3.75-4.01 on a 1-5 scale), while organisational resources, sources of knowledge and informal payments scored low (1.78-2.71). The general service readiness index was 59%. On average, 67% of the health posts had basic amenities to provide services, 81% had basic equipment, 42% had standard precautions for infection prevention, 47% had test capacity for malaria and 58% had essential medicines. CONCLUSION The health extension workers had a good relationship with the local community, used data for planning, were highly committed to their work with positive perceptions of their work culture, a relatively positive attitude regarding their leaders, and reported no corruption or informal payments. In contrast, they had insufficient sources of information and a severe lack of resources. The health post preparedness confirmed the low level of resources and preparedness for services. These findings suggest a significant potential contribution by health extension workers to Ethiopia's primary healthcare, provided that they receive improved support, including new information and essential resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodros Getachew
- Health System and Reproductive Health Research Directtorate, Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Institute of Public Health, University of Gondar College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Solomon Mekonnen Abebe
- Institute of Public Health, University of Gondar College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Mezgebu Yitayal
- Institute of Public Health, University of Gondar College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | | | - Lars-Ake Persson
- Health System and Reproductive Health Research Directtorate, Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Della Berhanu
- Health System and Reproductive Health Research Directtorate, Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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Woldu Anbesu E, Abubeker SA, Berhe BM. Age-appropriate vaccination practice and associated factors among mothers of children aged less than one year in the pastoral community of Afar region, Ethiopia. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2021; 17:3178-3185. [PMID: 34062099 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2021.1919480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Achieving and maintaining high-level immunization coverage is the priority of the health-care delivery system. However, any delay in receiving the vaccine leaves youngsters inadequately protected. Timely vaccination has scarcely been reported and given little attention in developing nations like Ethiopia, which hinders effective interventions. Therefore, this study aimed to assess age-appropriate vaccination practice and associated factors among mothers of children aged less than one year in the pastoral community. A community-based cross-sectional study has conducted among 340 mothers/caregivers of children aged less than one year in Samara-logia city administration. A systematic random sampling technique was employed to identify and enroll mothers-child paired. The logistic regression analysis had done to identify the factors associated with age-appropriate vaccination practice. The statistical association had measured, and a p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. In this study, a total of 331 mothers/caregivers-child pairs participated with a response rate of 97.3%. The age-appropriate vaccination practice was 43.7% (95% CI, 38%, 49.5%). Mothers who had higher educational level (Adjusted odds ratio (AOR)) = AOR = 2.89, 95% CI (1.14, 7.3), antenatal care follow-up (AOR = 2.1, 95% CI (1.04, 4.1)), and had good knowledge on vaccination (AOR = 3.1, 95% CI (1.4, 6.78)) were associated with increased odds of age-appropriate vaccination practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etsay Woldu Anbesu
- Department of Public Health, College of Medical and Health Sciences, Samara University, Samara, Ethiopia
| | - Seada Ali Abubeker
- Department of Neglected Tropical Disease, Afar Regional Health Bureau, Samara, Ethiopia
| | - Brhanu Medhin Berhe
- Department of Public Health, College of Medical and Health Sciences, Samara University, Samara, Ethiopia
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Miller NP, Bagheri Ardestani F, Wong H, Stokes S, Mengistu B, Paulos M, Agonafir N, Sylla M, Ameha A, Birhanu BG, Khan S, Lemango ET. Barriers to the utilization of community-based child and newborn health services in Ethiopia: a scoping review. Health Policy Plan 2021; 36:1187-1196. [PMID: 33885143 PMCID: PMC8496769 DOI: 10.1093/heapol/czab047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The Ethiopian Federal Ministry of Health and partners have scaled up integrated
community case management (iCCM) and community-based newborn care (CBNC),
allowing health extension workers (HEWs) to manage the major causes of child and
newborn death at the community level. However, low service uptake remains a key
challenge. We conducted a scoping review of peer-reviewed and grey literature to
assess barriers to the utilization of HEW services and to explore potential
solutions. The review, which was conducted to inform the Optimizing the Health
Extension Program project, which aimed to increase the utilization of iCCM and
CBNC services, included 24 peer-reviewed articles and 18 grey literature
documents. Demand-side barriers to utilization included lack of knowledge about
the signs and symptoms of childhood illnesses and danger signs; low awareness of
curative services offered by HEWs; preference for home-based care, traditional
care, or religious intervention; distance, lack of transportation and cost of
care seeking; the need to obtain husband’s permission to seek care and
opposition of traditional or religious leaders. Supply-side barriers included
health post closures, drug stockouts, disrespectful care and limited skill and
confidence of HEWs, particularly with regard to the management of newborn
illnesses. Potential solutions included community education and demand
generation activities, finding ways to facilitate and subsidize transportation
to health facilities, engaging family members and traditional and religious
leaders, ensuring consistent availability of services at health posts and
strengthening supervision and supply chain management. Both demand generation
and improvement of service delivery are necessary to achieve the expected impact
of iCCM and CBNC. Key steps for improving utilization would be carrying out
multifaceted demand generation activities, ensuring availability of HEWs in
health posts and ensuring consistent supplies of essential commodities. The
Women’s Development Army has the potential to improving linkages between
HEWs and communities, but this strategy needs to be strengthened to be
effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan P Miller
- Health Section, UNICEF, 3 UN Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA.,Department of Population and Family Health, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, 722 West 168th St., New York, NY 10032, USA
| | | | - Hayes Wong
- Department of Population and Family Health, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, 722 West 168th St., New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Sonya Stokes
- Department of Population and Family Health, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, 722 West 168th St., New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Birkety Mengistu
- PATH Ethiopia, Bole Medhaniyalem Street #03, Bole, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Meron Paulos
- PATH Ethiopia, Bole Medhaniyalem Street #03, Bole, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Nesibu Agonafir
- PATH Ethiopia, Bole Medhaniyalem Street #03, Bole, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Mariame Sylla
- Health Section, UNICEF Ethiopia, UNECA Compound, Zambezi Building, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Agazi Ameha
- Health Section, UNICEF Ethiopia, UNECA Compound, Zambezi Building, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Bizuhan Gelaw Birhanu
- Health Section, UNICEF Ethiopia, UNECA Compound, Zambezi Building, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Sadaf Khan
- Maternal Newborn Child Health and Nutrition, PATH, 2201 Westlake Ave. Ste 200, Seattle, WA 98121, USA
| | - Ephrem Tekle Lemango
- Programs Section, Maternal, Child Health and Nutrition Directorate, Ministry of Health, Sudan Street, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Defar A, Alemu K, Tigabu Z, Persson LÅ, Okwaraji YB. Caregivers' and Health Extension Workers' Perceptions and Experiences of Outreach Management of Childhood Illnesses in Ethiopia: A Qualitative Study. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18073816. [PMID: 33917415 PMCID: PMC8038672 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18073816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Ethiopian Health Extension Workers provide facility-based and outreach services, including home visits to manage sick children, aiming to increase equity in service coverage. Little is known about the scope of the outreach services and caregivers' and health workers' perceptions of these services. We aimed at exploring mothers' and health extension workers' perceptions and experiences of the outreach services provided for the management of childhood illnesses. METHODS Four focus groups and eight key informant interviews were conducted. A total of 45 community members participated. Interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim, and translated into English. We applied thematic content analysis, identified challenges in providing outreach services, and suggestions for improvement. We balanced the data collection by selecting half of the participants for interview and focus group discussions from remote areas and the other half from areas closer to the health posts. RESULTS Mothers reported that health extension workers visited their homes for preventive services but not for managing childhood illnesses. They showed lack of trust in the health workers' ability to treat children at home. The health extension workers reported that they provide sick children treatment during outreach services but also stated that in most cases, mothers visit the health posts when their child is sick. On the other hand, mothers considered distance from home to health post not to be a problem if the quality of services improved. Workload, long distances, and lack of incentives were perceived as demotivating factors for outreach services. The health workers called for support, incentives, and capacity development activities. CONCLUSIONS Mothers and health extension workers had partly divergent perceptions of whether outreach curative services for children were available. Mothers wanted improvements in the quality of services while health workers requested capacity development and more support for providing effective community-based child health services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atkure Defar
- Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa P.O. Box 1242, Ethiopia; (L.Å.P.); (Y.B.O.)
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar P.O. Box 196, Ethiopia;
- Correspondence:
| | - Kassahun Alemu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar P.O. Box 196, Ethiopia;
| | - Zemene Tigabu
- Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, School of Medicine, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar P.O. Box 196, Ethiopia;
| | - Lars Åke Persson
- Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa P.O. Box 1242, Ethiopia; (L.Å.P.); (Y.B.O.)
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Yemisrach B. Okwaraji
- Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa P.O. Box 1242, Ethiopia; (L.Å.P.); (Y.B.O.)
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK
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Getachew T, Abebe SM, Yitayal M, Persson LÅ, Berhanu D. Association between a complex community intervention and quality of health extension workers' performance to correctly classify common childhood illnesses in four regions of Ethiopia. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0247474. [PMID: 33711024 PMCID: PMC7954333 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0247474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Due to low care utilization, a complex intervention was done for two years to optimize the Ethiopian Health Extension Program. Improved quality of the integrated community case management services was an intermediate outcome of this intervention through community education and mobilization, capacity building of health workers, and strengthening of district ownership and accountability of sick child services. We evaluated the association between the intervention and the health extension workers’ ability to correctly classify common childhood illnesses in four regions of Ethiopia. Methods Baseline and endline assessments were done in 2016 and 2018 in intervention and comparison areas in four regions of Ethiopia. Ill children aged 2 to 59 months were mobilized to visit health posts for an assessment that was followed by re-examination. We analyzed sensitivity, specificity, and difference-in-difference of correct classification with multilevel mixed logistic regression in intervention and comparison areas at baseline and endline. Results Health extensions workers’ consultations with ill children were observed in intervention (n = 710) and comparison areas (n = 615). At baseline, re-examination of the children showed that in intervention areas, health extension workers’ sensitivity for fever or malaria was 54%, 68% for respiratory infections, 90% for diarrheal diseases, and 34% for malnutrition. At endline, it was 40% for fever or malaria, 49% for respiratory infections, 85% for diarrheal diseases, and 48% for malnutrition. Specificity was higher (89–100%) for all childhood illnesses. Difference-in-differences was 6% for correct classification of fever or malaria [aOR = 1.45 95% CI: 0.81–2.60], 4% for respiratory tract infection [aOR = 1.49 95% CI: 0.81–2.74], and 5% for diarrheal diseases [aOR = 1.74 95% CI: 0.77–3.92]. Conclusion This study revealed that the Optimization of Health Extension Program intervention, which included training, supportive supervision, and performance reviews of health extension workers, was not associated with an improved classification of childhood illnesses by these Ethiopian primary health care workers. Trial registration ISRCTN12040912, http://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN12040912.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodros Getachew
- Health System and Reproductive Health Research Directorate, Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Institute of Public Health, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
- * E-mail:
| | - Solomon Mekonnen Abebe
- College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Institute of Public Health, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Mezgebu Yitayal
- College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Institute of Public Health, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Lars Åke Persson
- Health System and Reproductive Health Research Directorate, Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Della Berhanu
- Health System and Reproductive Health Research Directorate, Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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Berhanu D, Okwaraji YB, Defar A, Bekele A, Lemango ET, Medhanyie AA, Wordofa MA, Yitayal M, W/Gebriel F, Desta A, Gebregizabher FA, Daka DW, Hunduma A, Beyene H, Getahun T, Getachew T, Woldemariam AT, Wolassa D, Persson LÅ, Schellenberg J. Does a complex intervention targeting communities, health facilities and district health managers increase the utilisation of community-based child health services? A before and after study in intervention and comparison areas of Ethiopia. BMJ Open 2020; 10:e040868. [PMID: 32933966 PMCID: PMC7493123 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-040868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Ethiopia successfully reduced mortality in children below 5 years of age during the past few decades, but the utilisation of child health services was still low. Optimising the Health Extension Programme was a 2-year intervention in 26 districts, focusing on community engagement, capacity strengthening of primary care workers and reinforcement of district accountability of child health services. We report the intervention's effectiveness on care utilisation for common childhood illnesses. METHODS We included a representative sample of 5773 households with 2874 under-five children at baseline (December 2016 to February 2017) and 10 788 households and 5639 under-five children at endline surveys (December 2018 to February 2019) in intervention and comparison areas. Health facilities were also included. We assessed the effect of the intervention using difference-in-differences analyses. RESULTS There were 31 intervention activities; many were one-off and implemented late. In eight districts, activities were interrupted for 4 months. Care-seeking for any illness in the 2 weeks before the survey for children aged 2-59 months at baseline was 58% (95% CI 47 to 68) in intervention and 49% (95% CI 39 to 60) in comparison areas. At end-line it was 39% (95% CI 32 to 45) in intervention and 34% (95% CI 27 to 41) in comparison areas (difference-in-differences -4 percentage points, adjusted OR 0.49, 95% CI 0.12 to 1.95). The intervention neither had an effect on care-seeking among sick neonates, nor on household participation in community engagement forums, supportive supervision of primary care workers, nor on indicators of district accountability for child health services. CONCLUSION We found no evidence to suggest that the intervention increased the utilisation of care for sick children. The lack of effect could partly be attributed to the short implementation period of a complex intervention and implementation interruption. Future funding schemes should take into consideration that complex interventions that include behaviour change may need an extended implementation period. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER ISRCTN12040912.
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Affiliation(s)
- Della Berhanu
- Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
- Health Systems and Reproductive Health Research Directorate, Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Yemisrach Behailu Okwaraji
- Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Atkure Defar
- Health Systems and Reproductive Health Research Directorate, Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Abebe Bekele
- Health Systems and Reproductive Health Research Directorate, Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Ephrem Tekle Lemango
- Maternal and Child Health Directorate, Ethiopia Ministry of Health, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Araya Abrha Medhanyie
- School of Public Health, College of Health Sciences, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia
| | - Muluemebet Abera Wordofa
- Department of Population and Family Health, Faculty of Public Health, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
| | - Mezgebu Yitayal
- Department of Health Systems and Policy, Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Fitsum W/Gebriel
- College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Hawassa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia
| | - Alem Desta
- School of Public Health, College of Health Sciences, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia
| | - Fisseha Ashebir Gebregizabher
- School of Public Health, College of Health Sciences, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia
- Tigray Regional Health Bureau, Mekelle, Ethiopia
| | - Dawit Wolde Daka
- Department of Health Policy and Management, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
| | - Alemayehu Hunduma
- Department of Population and Family Health, Faculty of Public Health, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
- Oromia Regional Health Bureau, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Habtamu Beyene
- College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Hawassa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia
- Southern Nations, Nationalities & Peoples Regional Health Bureau, Hawassa, Ethiopia
| | - Tigist Getahun
- Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
- Amhara Regional Health Bureau, Baher Dar, Ethiopia
| | - Theodros Getachew
- Health Systems and Reproductive Health Research Directorate, Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Amare Tariku Woldemariam
- Department of Human Nutrition, Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Desta Wolassa
- Health Systems and Reproductive Health Research Directorate, Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Lars Åke Persson
- Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
- Health Systems and Reproductive Health Research Directorate, Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Joanna Schellenberg
- Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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