Prevalence, Predictors, and Awareness of Coffee Consumption and Its Trend among Saudi Female Students

Examining Anxiety and Insomnia in Internship Students and Their Association with Internet Gaming Disorder

Background: Internships are a mandatory graduation requirement to help medical students transition to the work environment. Some individuals are prone to anxiety in an unfamiliar environment, which is a public concern among young adults. Here, we investigated the mechanism between internet gaming disorder and anxiety and insomnia among internship students. Methods: A convenient sample of 267 internship students was collected in a cross-sectional study module between 17 July and 27 December 2022. The survey contained a 7-item Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7), Athens Insomnia Scale (AIS), and Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short-Form (IGDS9-SF). The association was estimated using Pearson's correlations, and network analysis was performed to characterize these associations. Results: Our results indicate that about 60% of participants exhibited mild to severe anxiety and insomnia, while 2.28% showed symptoms of internet gaming disorder. Also, we found a moderate association between anxiety and insomnia. An item-level analysis indicated that GAD_1 "feeling anxious" and GAD_5 "unable to sit still" are essential for gaming, and that GAD_2 "uncontrollable worrying" is crucial for insomnia. This indicated an interplay between these items, supported by our centrality analysis, where we found that GAD_1 and GAD_2 depicted high centrality. Conclusions: We found high rates of anxiety and insomnia in internship students and the association between selected symptoms of anxiety and insomnia. At the same time, low rates of internet gaming disorder could be attributed to a lack of time for entertainment and an increased awareness of its risks. Given these findings, an awareness of anxiety and insomnia risk should be emphasized.

Problematic coffee use and associated factors among medical and health science students in Dilla University, Ethiopia

Objective

Coffee holds a cherished place in Ethiopian culture, its consumption among students raises concerns despite its perceived benefits for alertness and productivity. Moderate caffeine intake remains unproblematic, but exceeding 400 mg daily can trigger detrimental health effects such as fatigue, memory impairment, and even attention-deficit disorder. Research on problematic coffee use among young adults, specifically Ethiopian students, remains limited, hindering our understanding of its potential scope and impact. To address this knowledge gap, researchers at Dilla University, Ethiopia, undertook a comprehensive study in 2022, focusing on the university's student population. This investigation holds significant potential to unveil the previously obscured landscape of excessive coffee consumption in this demographic and inform future research and potential interventions.

Methodology

An institutional-based cross-sectional study design was conducted in August-July, 2022. To measure problematic coffee use, this study used the Diagnostic Statistical Manual five criteria for substance use disorder. Those who scored >2 out of 11 criteria were considered to have problematic coffee use. To measure a significant association between the outcome and independent variable, a multivariable logistic regression analysis at p < 0.05 and 95% confidence interval was employed.

Result

This study included 414 respondents. More than half of the respondents, 347 (59.7%) were male. Out of all respondents, 182 (44.0%) had a boy/girlfriend. Nearly half of the respondents, 218 (52.7%) were orthodox, Christian religion followers. According to this study's findings, 137 (33.1%) respondents were considered to have problematic coffee use. Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that 5-10 years duration of coffee use (AOR = 4.62, 95% CI: 2.96-7.85; p = 0.001), start to use coffee before joining university (AOR = 2.977, 95% CI: 1.332-6.653; p = 0.008) and 6-9 cups of daily coffee use (AOR = 3.26, 95% CI: 2.14-5.89; p = 0.00) were associated with problematic coffee use.

Conclusion

This study showed that one-third of the respondents had problematic coffee use. The starting point, duration, and amount of use had a strong association with problematic coffee use. Hence, focusing on addressing the mental health challenges associated with problematic/excessive coffee consumption among higher education students is advisable. Additionally, promoting awareness of problematic/excessive coffee use and its potential remedies is recommended.

Addressing nutritional issues and eating behaviours among university students: a narrative review

University life is a critical period for establishing healthy eating habits and attitudes. However, university students are at risk of developing poor eating habits due to various factors, including economic conditions, academic stress and lack of information about nutritional concepts. Poor diet quality leads to malnutrition or overnutrition, increasing the risk of preventable diseases. Food environments on university campuses also play a significant role in shaping the dietary habits of students, with the availability of and accessibility to healthy food options being important factors influencing food choices and overall diet quality. Disordered eating habits and body dissatisfaction are prevalent among university students and can lead to eating disorders. Income and living arrangements also influence dietary habits, with low household income and living alone being associated with unhealthy eating habits. This study is a narrative review that aimed to address nutritional issues and eating behaviours, specifically among university students. We investigated the eating behaviours of university students, including their dietary patterns, food choices and food environments. The objective of this review was to provide insights into the nutritional issues and eating behaviours of university students, with the aim of identifying target areas for intervention to improve the overall health and wellbeing among college students. University food environments need to be restructured to promote healthy eating, including the availability, accessibility, affordability and labelling of healthy foods, and policies to limit the availability of unhealthy foods and drinks on campus.

Caffeine Consumption in Polish Adults: Development and Validation of a Polish Questionnaire for Assessing Caffeine Intake

Objective: Caffeine is one of the oldest natural substances consumed by people. Its consumption in Poland has not been well described. The aim of this study was to design and validate an online food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) on caffeine intake and to use it to estimate caffeine consumption in Polish adults.Method: The FFQ was prepared and validated in a pilot study. The intake assessment was conducted in 2019-2020 on 372 respondents, aged 18 to 60 years. The FFQ included products such as coffee, tea, energy drinks, and carbonated drinks, as well as supplements and chocolate.Results: We showed good repeatability of the FFQ and it was considered a valid tool. The mean total caffeine intake among all participants was 426.7 mg ± 283.4 mg/day of all sources; in women, it was 446.4 mg ± 306.2 mg/day, while in men, it was 394.1 ± 236.4 mg/day. Forty-three percent of the respondents consumed more than 400 mg of caffeine/day. Coffee was the main source of caffeine and contributed to 65% of total caffeine consumption. Women consumed 90% more green tea than men (p < 0.01). Overweight and obese people have 20% greater total caffeine intake (p = 0.01) and consumed 20% more coffee (p = 0.02) and 30% more black tea (p = 0.01) than people of normal weight.Conclusions: Average caffeine consumption among Polish adults slightly exceeds the safe consumption dose established by the European Food Safety Authority. Body weight status can differentiate caffeine intake.

Coffee Consumption Behavior in Young Adults: Exploring Motivations, Frequencies, and Reporting Adverse Effects and Withdrawal Symptoms

Background

Coffee consumption by young people has increased dramatically over the last decades as there are substantial evidence of the physiological, cognitive, and emotional effects of coffee consumption. To reduce the risk of consuming related harm, it is necessary to understand the consumer's motivation for its use.

Objective

This study aimed to investigate coffee consumption behavior in young adults, assess the type of coffee consumption, explore motivation, document adverse effects and withdrawal symptoms of coffee intake.

Methods

A sample of 923 young adults were recruited voluntarily to complete a set of measures examining motivations, adverse effects, and withdrawal symptoms of coffee intake. Logistic regression analysis was performed to determine the association between coffee consumption and all independent variables. A p-value of 0.005 was considered as statistically significant.

Results

The results indicate that more than half of the participants consumed coffee. Coffee consumers were more like to be male, young adults, unmarried, poor sleep pattern (3-5 hours), and smokers. Main motivations of coffee intake were those related to reinforcing effects. The prevalence of dripper coffee consumption (85.59%) was observed to be highest with 20.1% participants consuming coffee in 2-3 times per day. Participants experienced restlessness, shaky, excited, difficulty in falling sleep, and fast heart beat as adverse effects of coffee consumption. Withdrawal symptoms such as headache, mood change, and tiredness were also noticed after consuming a high amount of coffee. Gender (p < 0.005), age (p < 0.003), family income (p < 0.004), BMI (p < 0.002) and sleeping pattern (p < 0.005) were found important variables associated with coffee intake.

Conclusion

The association reported in this study may allow for the implementation of appropriate strategies to address behaviors towards excessive coffee consumption and its link to an increased risk of poor health.

Caffeine Consumption and Its Potential Health Effects on Saudi Adolescents in Jazan

Background Caffeine is the most popular product consumed globally in different types and amounts by various age groups. This study aimed to identify caffeine consumption patterns among adolescents in Jazan and explore related health effects. Methodology A cross-sectional study was conducted in Jazan on adolescents between 12 and 18 years of age. The consumption of coffee and caffeinated products and their potential health effects were evaluated using a self-reported online questionnaire. The data were analyzed using software for descriptive and inferential statistics. Results A total of 718 participants were enrolled in this study, with the age group of 16-18 years constituting the highest percentage (48.9%). Nearly 94% of the participants consumed coffee or caffeinated products, with 57% consuming the products infrequently. About 6.6% consumed coffee or caffeinated products more than three times daily, and about half of the participants used medium-sized cups. The most consumed type of caffeinated beverage was Arabic coffee, followed by tea, soft drinks, and Nescafe. Education level and age group showed a significant correlation with consumption patterns. The most common health effects of caffeine consumption were headaches, irregular sleep, and nausea, which were statistically related to age group, gender, and comorbid conditions. Conclusions Consumption of coffee and caffeinated beverages was relatively high among adolescents in this study. Further research on the habits of Saudi adolescent consumers, particularly across different areas of the country, is required.

Effect of Arabic Qahwa on Blood Pressure in Patients with Stage One Hypertension in the Eastern Region of Saudi Arabia

Hypertension (HT), which is a condition of increased blood pressure (BP), is a major health problem globally. In Saudi Arabia, morbidity and mortality rates are increasing due to HT. Arabic Qahwa (AQ) is a commonly consumed beverage in Saudi Arabia and has numerous health benefits. We conducted a randomized control trial to investigate the effect of AQ on BP among patients with HT (Stage 1). Based on the inclusion criteria, 140 patients were randomly selected, and 126 patients were followed up. After obtaining demographic information, we assessed the BP, heart rate, and lipid profile before and after the intervention of consuming four cups of AQ daily for four weeks. A paired 't' test was used with a significance level of 5%. In the AQ group, there were significant changes (p = 0.009) in systolic blood pressure (SBP), with means of 134.72 ± 3.23 and 133.14 ± 3.69 observed pre and post-test, respectively. Similarly, the diastolic blood pressure (DBP) pre- and post-test mean scores were 87.08 ± 1.8 and 85.98 ± 1.95, respectively, which also showed significance (p = 0.001). There were also significant changes (p = 0.001) observed in the lipid profile of the AQ group. In conclusion, AQ is effective in reducing SBP and DBP in patients with stage one HT.

Online Arabic Beverage Frequency Questionnaire (ABFQ): evaluation of validity and reliability

BACKGROUND

Obesity and chronic diseases are significant public health issues in the Middle East and North Africa region. A robust body of evidence demonstrated the association between beverage consumption, obesity, and chronic diseases. Therefore, the assessment of beverage consumption is gaining more interest in health policy development, food industry partnerships, research expansion and community involvement. Although beverage-consumption assessment tools have been developed for various populations, none were developed for the Arabic population. In this study, we developed and validated an online Arabic Beverage Frequency Questionnaire (ABFQ) to assess the total beverage intake among Arabic speaking population.

METHODS

A cross-sectional validation study was conducted among healthy adults aged between 18 and 55 years. Participants (n = 49) completed a 24-item ABFQ on two occasions and provided one 24-h urine sample. For validity, total beverage consumption (ABFQ1) was assessed against a 24-h urine sample using an osmolality test and correlation analysis. Reliability was assessed by comparing the participants' consumption in total and for every 24 individual items from ABFQ1 with the total and individual items in ABFQ2 using correlation and paired sample t-test.

RESULTS

The average daily consumption of beverages was 1504 ml/day, while the average urine osmolality/kg was 614. The validity assessment between ABFQ and urine osmolality indicates a negative correlation. However, the correlation was week and not statistically significant (r_s = -0.2, p = 0.12). In reliability test, correlation analysis was positive and acceptable in all beverage categories (r_s = 0.4 - 0.9; all p < 0.05) except flavored milk (r_s = 0.2; p < 0.181) and sweetened coffee (r_s = 0.3; p < 0.022). Furthermore, no significant differences were found between the means of total consumption in both ABFQ1 and ABFQ2.

CONCLUSIONS

The finding of this study suggest that the ABFQ is a reliable reproducible tool for assessing beverage consumption among Arabic-speaking consumers. However, the survey could not be validated using 24-h urine osmolality only and other methods such as multi dietary records may use in future re-assessment.

Ethnicity affects the risk factors of acute myocardial infarction and should be considered in educational programs

Acute Myocardial infarction is a non-communicable disease representing the leading cause of death in Saudi Arabia. Studying the ethnicity in its risk factors has been poorly investigated.

Snacking pattern of college students in Saudi Arabia: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Although unhealthy snack foods are commonly consumed by college students, snacking patterns among college students have not been comprehensively examined in Saudi Arabia. In our study, we aimed to investigate snacking patterns among Saudi college students and to assess sociodemographic data that affect adherence to these snacking patterns.

METHODS

Between January 2021 and March 2021 in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, an online survey was conducted with 662 college students from a Saudi university. The survey included sociodemographic questions and a short food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) regarding the consumption of common snack foods. Snacking patterns were generated from the FFQ using the factor analysis method.

RESULTS

Factor analyses generated seven snacking patterns, which explained 64.5% of the variance in snacking. Students in their early academic years (1-3 years) had a higher score for the convenience snack and fast-food pattern (0.22 ± 0.48 and 0.31 ± 0.52, respectively) than senior students (4-6 years) (P = 0.03 and 0.04, respectively). Healthy snacks patterns were higher among students at higher income levels (P = 0.006) and active students (P < 0.001) than among students at low- or mid-income levels and inactive students. Higher adherence to the beverages pattern was observed among male students (P = 0.03), active students (P = 0.01), and students with obesity than their counterparts (P = 0.02). The dairy products pattern was higher among male students (P = 0.04), students at higher income levels (P = 0.04), and students with obesity (P = 0.03) than their counterparts.

CONCLUSIONS

Most snacking patterns identified among the study participants were considered unhealthy. Adherence to healthy snacks is influenced by physical activity and family income. These findings may be helpful in the future for developing adequate nutrition education programs that promote health by adhering to healthy snack choices in this critical age group. Further studies are needed to confirm these findings and to investigate snacking patterns among other age groups in Saudi Arabia.

Caffeine Consumption among Various University Students in the UAE, Exploring the Frequencies, Different Sources and Reporting Adverse Effects and Withdrawal Symptoms

Background

Caffeine is widely consumed among students due to its cognitive and physical enhancing effects. However, little is known about the consumption pattern of different caffeinated products among university students in the United Arab Emirates (UAE).

Aim

To investigate the frequency of caffeine consumption among the young population of students, assess types of caffeinated products consumed, and document adverse effects and withdrawal symptoms experienced by university students.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted in the UAE from December 2019 to March 2020. A random sample of 500 university students from different universities in the UAE were approached and asked to complete a self-administered online-based questionnaire. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 26.

Results

Of (n = 500) surveyed students, (n = 467) completed the survey 93.4%. The average level of caffeine consumption was significantly higher in females compared to male students (p < 0.005). Coffee was the highest favored source of caffeine (67.7%) followed by tea (47.3%). The average daily intake of caffeine was found to be 264 mg/day. Surprisingly, almost a third of students reported a high level of daily consumption (>400 mg/day) and more than half of them consumed less than 199 mg/day. Large proportions of students 91.1% have their caffeinated beverage after or while eating meals and 42.8% considered that this habit helped in avoiding acid reflux. Interestingly, around one third of participants have poor knowledge of caffeine-containing medical products, which seemed to affect the level of consumption in the student population (p < 0.05). The highest reported reason for caffeine intake was for studying purposes (59.4%).

Conclusion

Caffeine consumption is highly prevalent among university students in the UAE. Yet, there is insufficiency in the current knowledge of safe caffeine consumption patterns reflecting the importance of health awareness programs and nutritional lectures to decrease the long-term health issues and unintentional overdose of caffeine.

Prevalence and beverage-related risk factors of gastroesophageal reflux disease: An original study in Chinese college freshmen, a systemic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Beverage-drinking behavior could be a potential risk factor for gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) in young populations. However, GERD prevalence in this population has not been investigated, and beverage consumption's association with GERD remains inconclusive. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence and beverage-related risk factors of GERD among Chinese college freshmen and in youth around the world.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was conducted in Chinese college freshmen in September 2019 using random cluster sampling method. Participants completed questionnaires on demographic information, food intake frequency, and GER symptoms. Multivariate logistic regression models were applied to assess the association between beverages and GERD. Studies were retrieved from multiple databases for systemic review. The prevalence of GERD in young populations and beverage-related risk factors were pooled using random-effect models.

KEY RESULTS

Based on the 3345 individuals who completed the questionnaires, GERD prevalence in Chinese college freshmen is 5.1%. Multivariate analysis showed students who drink green tea daily, and those who drink coffee regularly were more likely to develop GERD compared with those who never drink tea or coffee. The pooled prevalence of GERD in young populations is 18.0%, and frequent alcohol consumption is positively associated with GERD in general population.

CONCLUSIONS AND INFERENCES

The prevalence of GERD in Chinese college freshmen is significantly lower than that in worldwide youth populations. Alcohol, green tea, and coffee consumption could be potential risk factors for GERD. Future large-scale epidemiological studies are warranted for reliable identification of beverage-related risk factors for GERD in young populations.

The Effect of Green Coffee on Blood Pressure, Liver and Kidney Functions in Obese Model Rats

BACKGROUND: The effect of green coffee (GC) on blood pressure (BP) is still debated, but GC is thought to improve liver and kidney function. AIM: This study aimed to analyze the effect of the GC intervention on BP, liver, and kidney functions in obese model rats. METHODS: The research was a pre-clinical trial of pretest-posttest with control group design. Animals were divided into four groups: obese rats (G1), obese rats and GC (G2), obese rats and physical exercise (PE) (G3), and a combination of interventions (PE+GC) (G4). Data analysis used an independent sample t-test and analysis of variance; (p < 0.05). RESULTS: There was a different effect of the GC, PE, and PE+GC intervention on BP (186.50 ± 3.45 vs. 91.33 ± 1.96 p = 0.001*; 189.17 ± 2.93 vs. 119.50 ± 3.73 p = 0.001*; 191.8 3 ± 2.64 vs. 98.83 ± 3.76 p = 0.001*) in obese rats. There was a significant difference in Serum Glutamic Oxaloacetic Transaminase (SGOT) (p=0.001*), Serum Glutamic Pyruvic Transaminase (SGPT) (p = 0.001*), Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) (p = 0.001*), and Creatinine (p = 0.001*) before and after the intervention in the three groups (G2, G3, and G4). SGOT, SGPT, and Creatinine levels decreased significantly after PE, GC, and PE+GC intervention. On the other hand, BUN levels decreased significantly after GC and its combination intervention. Meanwhile, in the control group and the intervention of PE, it increased significantly. CONCLUSIONS: GC is more effective in lowering BP without causing impaired liver and kidney function in obese rats.

Simultaneous co-hydrothermal carbonization and chemical activation of food wastes to develop hydrochar for aquatic environmental remediation

Locally generated food wastes, such as Arabic coffee ground (ACG) and olive oil cake (OOC) were converted to N-ACG: OOC - 3 hydrochar (HC) through simultaneous co-hydrothermal carbonization (Co-HTC) and chemical activation. The optimized ACG: OOC mass ratio (g: g) and chemical activation agent used were 1.2: 0.8 and 0.1 M HNO₃, respectively. Spectroscopic analyses confirmed the dominance of oxygen-containing functionalities, whereas the X-ray diffraction pattern displayed peaks for both sucrose and cellulose on N-ACG: OOC - 3. The developed HC was tested for methylene blue (MB) and crystal violet (CV) adsorption in aqueous systems. Batch scale adsorption studies showed pH, initial concentration (C_o), time (t), and temperature (T) dependent dye uptake. Maximum dye uptake was observed at pH 7, with 50 - 70% and 76 - 90 % CV and MB removal achieved within 15 min at varied C_o: 50 - 200 mg/L. Adsorption was governed by multiple mechanisms, including hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions, π-π interactions, and n-π interactions. Dye elution was higher in ethanol (EtOH: C₂H₅OH), and CV elution (50.8%) was more significant than MB elution (14.8%).

Caffeine as a contaminant of concern: A review on concentrations and impacts in marine coastal systems

Caffeine has been identified as emerging contaminant of concern due to its widespread occurrence in the aquatic environment and potential to be biologically active. Recently, these concerns have been translated in an increasing research on its occurrence and effects on biota. However, there is still a limited knowledge on seawater matrices and the implications of caffeine presence in coastal and marine ecosystems are not fully known. The present review aims to fill these knowledge gaps, analysing the existing literature regarding the occurrence, effects and potential risks of caffeine residues to coastal ecosystems, contributing to the risk assessment of this psychoactive drug in the aquatic environment. The analysed literature reported caffeine concentrations in the coastal ecosystems, raising high concerns about the potential adverse impacts on the ecological safety and human health. Caffeine has been found in tissues from coastal and marine biota including microalgae, coral reefs, bivalves and fish due to bioaccumulation after chronic, long-term exposures in a contaminated environment. Additionally, caffeine residues had been demonstrated to have adverse impacts on aquatic organisms, at environmentally realistic concentrations, inducing oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation, neurotoxicity, changing energy reserves and metabolic activity, affecting reproduction and development and, in some cases, causing mortality. Considering the increasing adverse impacts of caffeine pollution in the coastal environment, this review highlights the urgent need to minimize the increasing load of caffeine to the aquatic ecosystems; being imperative the implementation of scientific programs and projects to classify effectively the caffeine as a high-priority environmentally hazardous emerging pollutant.

Investigation of the effects of different beverages on the disintegration time of over-the-counter medications in Saudi Arabia

Full disintegration of Oral solid dosage forms is critically important to achieve reliable clinical performance of the drug. Tablets/capsules are supposed to be taken with a full glass of water; however, many patients do not follow this recommendation as they administer their medications with beverages other than water. This study aims to assess the impact of different commonly consumed beverages in Saudi Arabia on the disintegration times of common over-the-counter (OTC) medication tablets and capsules in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Five immediate release OTC drugs were chosen: Fevadol®, Solpadeine®, Ralaxon®, Artiz ®, and Brufen®. The disintegration times of these medications were assessed using a disintegration test in five beverages: Coca-cola, arabic coffee, orange juice, buttermilk and an energy drink. Times were compared to the disintegration time in water under two temperature conditions (37 °C and 5 °C). All beverages significantly increased the disintegration times of fevadol, solpadeine, and relaxon in comparison with water. The same was found for burfen, except that arabic coffee did not significantly increase disintegration time (p > 0.05). The disintegration time of artiz tablets was also significantly influenced by all beverages, except for Coca-cola and the energy drink, which had no significant impact on the disintegration time. The tested beverages should not be used as substitutes for water when ingesting medications. Patients should be advised to avoid consuming beverages other than water with therapeutic products. Increasing public awareness of drug-beverage interactions is needed.

Caffeine Sources and Consumption among Saudi Adults Living with Diabetes and Its Potential Effect on HbA1c

Information regarding the spread and effect of coffee and caffeine intake by individuals with type II diabetes remains unclear. This study aims to identify the amount and sources of habitual caffeine intake by individuals with type II diabetes and to investigate its association with other health outcomes, especially HbA1c. This is a cross-sectional survey involving 100 people medically defined as having type II diabetes comprising both genders, recruited from a care centre. All participants completed a caffeine semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (C-FFQ) to estimate their caffeine consumption, a two day 24-h recall, and a detailed questionnaire. The average caffeine intake was calculated from all sources and the differences in mean by gender were tested using a regression model (adjusted to important confounders). Regression models were used to verify the association between average caffeine intake on HbA1c and other health outcomes with adjustment for important confounders. A p value < 0.05 represented statistical significance. Arabic coffee (gahwa) and tea were the most common sources of caffeine among Saudi adults living with diabetes. Average caffeine intake for the whole sample was 194 ± 165 mg/day, which is 2.3 ± 2 mg/kg. There was an inverse association between caffeine intake and age: difference in mean -3.26 mg/year (95%CI: -5.34, -1.18; p = 0.003). Males had significantly higher consumption of caffeine compared to females: difference in mean 90.7 mg/day (95%CI: 13.8, 167.6; p = 0.021). No association was found between average caffeine intake and HbA1C or any other cardiovascular risk factors. This information can help public health practitioners and policy makers when assessing the risk of caffeine consumption among this vulnerable group.