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Inamura N, Taniguchi H, Yoshida S, Nishioka M, Ishihara K. A comparative observational study of carbohydrate intake and continuous blood glucose levels in relation to performance in ultramarathon. Sci Rep 2024; 14:1089. [PMID: 38212465 PMCID: PMC10784534 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-51048-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Ultra-endurance events have gained global participation, whereas the critical factors of competition results remain to be well elucidated. This study used a nutritional approach to evaluate the association of competition results with carbohydrate intake and blood glucose control during a 100-mile ultramarathon. This observational study was conducted in the 2021 LAKE BIWA 100, which covered 100 miles (169 km) and 10,500 m elevation. The course was divided into 9 segments by aid station. According to the competition results, 22 participants (18 men and 4 women) were divided into higher finishers (n = 7), lower finishers (n = 9), and non-finishers (n = 6). The participants self-recorded their overall dietary intake throughout the race. Glucose levels were monitored every 15 min by a flash glucose monitoring system. Running speed in each segment was standardized to the average of the top five finishers for each gender. Among finishers, the carbohydrate intakes were significantly higher in the higher finishers than in the lower finishers during overall segments, especially in the first half of the race (p < 0.05). There was a significant positive correlation between running speed and carbohydrate intake in the lower finishers (rho = 0.700, p = 0.036). Two-way ANOVA analysis revealed that lowering glucose levels in each segment were more frequently observed in the lower finishers compared to the higher finishers (p = 0.012). Compared to the higher finishers, the lower finishers exhibited significantly greater fluctuations (⊿highest-lowest) in glucose levels (p < 0.001). The fluctuations in glucose levels were significantly and negatively correlated with the running speed of the finishers (rho = - 0.612, p = 0.012). Faster runners consume high amounts of carbohydrates and maintain glucose levels during the 100-mile ultramarathon on the trail, especially at the beginning. Lowering and fluctuating glucose levels during the race are associated with lower running speed in endurance athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naho Inamura
- Faculty of Agriculture, Ryukoku University, Shiga, 520-2194, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Taniguchi
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Kyoto Prefectural University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Shiori Yoshida
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Kyoto Prefectural University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Masato Nishioka
- Faculty of Agriculture, Ryukoku University, Shiga, 520-2194, Japan
| | - Kengo Ishihara
- Faculty of Agriculture, Ryukoku University, Shiga, 520-2194, Japan.
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Thuany M, Vieira D, Villiger E, Gomes TN, Weiss K, Nikolaidis PT, Sousa CV, Scheer V, Knechtle B. An analysis of the São Silvestre race between 2007-2021: An increase in participation but a decrease in performance. SPORTS MEDICINE AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2023; 5:277-282. [PMID: 38314049 PMCID: PMC10831388 DOI: 10.1016/j.smhs.2023.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2022] [Revised: 01/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the trends of finishers in the São Silvestre race in Brazil, taking into account sex, age, and performance levels. A total of 31 775 runners (women, n = 13 847; men, n = 17 928), aged (45.2 ± 16.8) years, finishers in the São Silvestre race between 2007 and 2021, were considered in the present analysis. Data (event year, date of birth, sex, and race times) were downloaded from the official race website. The man-Whitney U test, Spearman correlation, and robust regression model were computed. Participation increased over time for both sexes. Regarding age groups, "31-40 years" (women) and "> 60 years" (men) were those with the highest number of finishers. We found a decrease in performance across the years (β = 2.45; p < 0.005), as well as significant differences in race times for both sexes (U = 42.844; p < 0.001), with men presenting better performances than women. Over time, it was observed an increase in the performance gap between the sexes, but in general, the performance decreased (β = 1.76; p < 0.001). Stakeholders should consider improving the strategies to improve women and young people's participation in running events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mabliny Thuany
- CIFI2D, Faculty of Sports, University of Porto, 4200-450, Porto, Portugal
| | - Douglas Vieira
- Post-Graduation Program of Physical Education, Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristóvão-SE, Brazil
| | - Elias Villiger
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thayse Natacha Gomes
- Post-Graduation Program of Physical Education, Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristóvão-SE, Brazil
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
| | - Katja Weiss
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Pantelis T. Nikolaidis
- School of Health and Caring Sciences, University of West Attica, Athens, 12243, Athens, Greece
| | - Caio Victor Sousa
- Bouve College of Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Volker Scheer
- Ultra Sports Science Foundation, 109 Boulevard de l'Europe, 69310, Pierre-Benite, France
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, St. Gallen, Switzerland
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Genitrini M, Fritz J, Stöggl T, Schwameder H. Performance Level Affects Full Body Kinematics and Spatiotemporal Parameters in Trail Running-A Field Study. Sports (Basel) 2023; 11:188. [PMID: 37888515 PMCID: PMC10611210 DOI: 10.3390/sports11100188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Trail running is an emerging discipline with few studies performed in ecological conditions. The aim of this work was to investigate if and how biomechanics differ between more proficient (MP) and less proficient (LP) trail runners. Twenty participants (10 F) were recruited for a 9.1 km trail running time trial wearing inertial sensors. The MP athletes group was composed of the fastest five men and the fastest five women. Group differences in spatiotemporal parameters and leg stiffness were tested with the Mann-Whitney U-test. Group differences in joint angles were tested with statistic parametric mapping. The finish time was 51.1 ± 6.3 min for the MP athletes and 60.0 ± 5.5 min for the LP athletes (p < 0.05). Uphill sections: The MP athletes expressed a tendency to higher speed that was not significant (p > 0.05), achieved by combining higher step frequency and higher step length. They showed a tendency to shorter contact time, lower duty factor and longer flight time that was not significant (p > 0.05) as well as significantly lower knee flexion during the stance phase (p < 0.05). Downhill sections: The MP athletes achieved significantly higher speed (p < 0.05) through higher step length only. They showed significantly higher knee and hip flexion during the swing phase as well as higher trunk rotation and shoulder flexion during the stance phase (p < 0.05). No differences were found with respect to leg stiffness in the uphill or downhill sections (p > 0.05). In the uphill sections, the results suggest lower energy absorption and more favorable net mechanical work at the knee joint for the MP athletes. In the downhill sections, the results suggest that the more efficient motion of the swing leg in the MP athletes could increase momentum in the forward direction and full body center of mass' velocity at toe off, thus optimizing the propulsion phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Genitrini
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, 5400 Hallein-Rif, Austria
| | | | - Thomas Stöggl
- Red Bull Athlete Performance Center, 5303 Thalgau, Austria
| | - Hermann Schwameder
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, 5400 Hallein-Rif, Austria
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Coquart JB. Prediction of performance in a 100-km run from a simple equation. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0279662. [PMID: 36862733 PMCID: PMC9980800 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0279662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to identify predictive variables of performance for a 100-km race (Perf100-km) and develop an equation for predicting this performance using individual data, recent marathon performance (Perfmarathon), and environmental conditions at the start of the 100-km race. All runners who had performed official Perfmarathon and Perf100-km in France, both in 2019, were recruited. For each runner, gender, weight, height, body mass index (BMI), age, the personal marathon record (PRmarathon), date of the Perfmarathon and Perf100-km, and environmental conditions during the 100-km race (i.e., minimal and maximal air temperatures, wind speed, total amount of precipitation, relative humidity and barometric pressure) were collected. Correlations between the data were examined, and prediction equations were then developed using stepwise multiple linear regression analyses. Significant bivariate correlations were found between Perfmarathon (p<0.001, r = 0.838), wind speed (p<0.001, r = -0.545), barometric pressure (p<0.001, r = 0.535), age (p = 0.034, r = 0.246), BMI (p = 0.034, r = 0.245), PRmarathon (p = 0.065, r = 0.204) and Perf100-km in 56 athletes The, 2 prediction equations with larger sample (n = 591) were developed to predict Perf100-km, one including Perfmarathon, wind speed and PRmarathon (model 1, r² = 0.549; standard errors of the estimate, SEE = 13.2%), and the other including only Perfmarathon and PRmarathon (model 2, r² = 0.494; SEE = 14.0%). Perf100-km can be predicted with an acceptable level of accuracy from only recent Perfmarathon and PRmarathon, in amateur athletes who want to perform a 100 km for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy B. Coquart
- Univ. Lille, Univ. Artois, Univ. Littoral Côte d’Opale, ULR 7369—URePSSS—Unité de Recherche Pluridisciplinaire Sport Santé Société, Lille, France
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Thorpe R, Blockman M, Talberg H, Burgess T. The knowledge and attitudes of South African-based runners regarding the use of analgesics during training and competition. SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE 2023; 34:v34i1a13976. [PMID: 36815906 PMCID: PMC9924556 DOI: 10.17159/2078-516x/2022/v34i1a13976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The use of analgesics is prevalent in runners, with the associated potential for serious harm. However, there is limited information regarding runners' knowledge and attitudes towards the use of analgesics in relation to running. Objectives To describe South African-based runners' knowledge and attitudes regarding running-related analgesic use. Methods This study has a descriptive, cross-sectional design. South African-based runners, over the age of 18 who ran at least one race in the year preceding the study were included in this study. Participants completed an online questionnaire, including sections on demographic information, training and competition history, pain medication use, and knowledge and attitudes regarding running-related analgesic use. Results Data from 332 participants were analysed. Attitudes regarding the use of analgesics in relation to running were generally positive; however, knowledge was poor, with only 20% of participants achieving adequate knowledge scores (75% or above). Very few (n=49; 15%) had both adequate knowledge and positive attitudes, with most respondents (n=188; 58%) having inadequate knowledge and negative attitudes. Negative attitudes towards the use of analgesics were found to increase the odds of running-related analgesic use (OR 2.32; 95% CI:1.31-4.11). Conclusion Knowledge regarding running-related use of analgesics was inadequate. Despite a lack of knowledge, attitudes were positive. Participants displayed positive attitudes towards safe practice regarding running-related analgesic use, but these did not translate into good practice. Targeted interventions are required to educate runners and improve their knowledge of all the effects associated with running-related analgesic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Thorpe
- Division of Physiotherapy, Department of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Cape Town,
South Africa
| | - M Blockman
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Cape Town,
South Africa
| | - H Talberg
- Division of Physiotherapy, Department of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Cape Town,
South Africa
| | - T Burgess
- Division of Physiotherapy, Department of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Cape Town,
South Africa
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Remilly M, Mauvieux B, Drigny J. Personality Traits Associated with the Risk of Exercise Dependence in Ultraendurance Athletes: A Cross-Sectional Study. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:1042. [PMID: 36673797 PMCID: PMC9858902 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20021042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Exercise dependence (ED) is common in endurance athletes and can lead to physical and psychological distress with various health effects. We designed a prospective cross-sectional study to investigate the personality traits associated with ED among ultraendurance athletes. A total of 507 participants (41.6 (9.8) years, men: 73.7%) completed (1) a screening questionnaire about sociodemographic data, sporting habits, and healthcare data, (2) the Exercise Dependence Scale-Revised (EDS-R, 21 items scored from 1 (never) to 6 (always), 7 subscales), (3) the Big Five Inventory (BFI), and (4) 2 items of the SCOFF (Sick-Control-One Stone-Fat-Food) questionnaire regarding possible eating disorders. Based on the EDS-R scores, 37 (7.3%) participants were at risk for ED (scores ≥ 5/6 on ≥3 subscales), 366 (72.2%) were nondependent but symptomatic (scores ≥ 3/6 on ≥3 subscales), and 104 (20.5%) were asymptomatic. Participants with ED had a greater training volume and a higher prevalence of possible eating disorders. A higher level of neuroticism was associated with increased EDS-R scores (r = 0.294; p < 0.001), with significantly higher scores in the ED group (F = 14.50, p < 0.001). The association between neuroticism and ED was not moderated by the presence of eating disorders. These findings will help to screen ultraendurance athletes at risk for ED and optimize their care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Remilly
- Normandie Univ, UNICAEN, CHU de Caen Normandie, Service de Médecine du Sport, 14000 Caen, France
| | - Benoit Mauvieux
- Normandie Univ, UNICAEN, INSERM, COMETE, GIP CYCERON, 14000 Caen, France
| | - Joffrey Drigny
- Normandie Univ, UNICAEN, CHU de Caen Normandie, Normandie University, Service de Médecine du Sport, Service de Médecine Physique et de Réadaptation, INSERM, COMETE, GIP CYCERON, 14000 Caen, France
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7
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Genitrini M, Fritz J, Zimmermann G, Schwameder H. Downhill Sections Are Crucial for Performance in Trail Running Ultramarathons-A Pacing Strategy Analysis. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2022; 7:jfmk7040103. [PMID: 36412765 PMCID: PMC9680470 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk7040103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Trail running is an increasingly popular discipline, especially over long-distance races (>42.195 km). Pacing strategy, i.e., how athletes modulate running speed for managing their energies during a race, appears to have a significant impact on overall performance. The aims of this study were to investigate whether performance level, terrain (i.e., uphill or downhill) and race stage affect pacing strategy and whether any interactions between these factors are evident. Race data from four race courses, with multiple editions (total races = 16), were retrieved from their respective events websites. A linear mixed effect model was applied to the full dataset, as well as to two subgroups of the top 10 male and female finishers, to assess potential differences in pacing strategy (i.e., investigated in terms of relative speed). Better finishers (i.e., athletes ranking in the best positions) tend to run downhill sections at higher relative speeds and uphill sections at lower relative speeds than slower counterparts (p < 0.001). In the later race stages, the relative speed decrease is larger in downhill sections than in uphill ones (p < 0.001) and in downhill sections, slower finishers perform systematically worse than faster ones, but the performance difference (i.e., between slower and faster finishers) becomes significantly larger in the later race stages (p < 0.001). Among elite athletes, no difference in pacing strategy between faster and slower finishers was found (p > 0.05). Both men (p < 0.001) and women (p < 0.001), in the later race stages, slow down more in downhill sections than in uphill ones. Moreover, elite women tend to slow down more than men (p < 0.001) in the later race stages, regardless of the terrain, in contrast to previous studies focusing on road ultramarathons. In conclusion, running downhill sections at higher relative speeds, most likely due to less accentuated fatigue effects, as well as minimizing performance decrease in the later race stages in downhill sections, appears to be a hallmark of the better finishers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Genitrini
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, 5400 Hallein-Rif, Austria
| | | | - Georg Zimmermann
- Team Biostatistics and Big Medical Data, IDA Lab, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
- Research Management & Technology Transfer, Paracelsus Medical University, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Hermann Schwameder
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, 5400 Hallein-Rif, Austria
- Correspondence:
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de Souza RF, Santos MMS, Thuany M, dos Santos Silva D, de Jesus Alves MD, Oliveira DPM, Knechtle B, Silva AF, Clemente FM, Nobari H, Aidar FJ, Badicu G, Cataldi S, Greco G. Ultramarathon Evaluation above 180 km in relation to Peak Age and Performance. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 2022:1036775. [PMID: 37284504 PMCID: PMC10241566 DOI: 10.1155/2022/1036775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ultramarathons with distances over 180 km might lead to different results regarding participation, performance, and age compared to shorter runs of 50 and 100 km. OBJECTIVE To evaluate ultramarathons with distances above 180 km in relation to runners' peak age and performance. METHOD s. Verification of the quantity of competitions in runs over 180 km by continents in the period 2000 to 2020 and evaluation of the individual results of 13,300 athletes after 2010. RESULTS Europe stood out with the largest number of organized events, followed by Asia and North America. The age peak performance (PP) in men and women averaged 45 years old with relationship between sex × years (F = 3.612, p < 0.001; η2 = 0.003). Men accounted for more than 80% of the runners and showed a reduction in PP from 2015 onwards (p < 0.001). Competitions between 180 and 240 km were the most frequent, particularly after 2016, surpassing the number of marathons over 360 km (p < 0.001). Men and women showed higher velocity in distances (p < 0.001) from 180 to 240 km when compared to 241 to 300 k m, 301 to 360 km, and >360 km courses. CONCLUSIONS The decade between 2010 and 2020 showed an increase in the number of Ultramarathon running events. Europe had the highest number. Women had low participation. Performance progression fell, a fact associated with an increase in the number of participants and not specifically related to a decline in athletic performance over the years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphael Fabricio de Souza
- Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Sergipe (UFS), São Cristóvão, Brazil
- Graduate Program of Physical Education, Federal University of Sergipe (UFS), São Cristóvão, Sergipe, Brazil
- Group of Studies and Research of Performance, Sport, Health and Paralympic Sports-GEPEPS, Federal University of Sergipe, UFS, Sergipe, Brazil
| | | | - Mabliny Thuany
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sports, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Devisson dos Santos Silva
- Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Sergipe (UFS), São Cristóvão, Brazil
- Graduate Program of Physical Education, Federal University of Sergipe (UFS), São Cristóvão, Sergipe, Brazil
- Group of Studies and Research of Performance, Sport, Health and Paralympic Sports-GEPEPS, Federal University of Sergipe, UFS, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Micael Deivison de Jesus Alves
- Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Sergipe (UFS), São Cristóvão, Brazil
- Graduate Program of Physical Education, Federal University of Sergipe (UFS), São Cristóvão, Sergipe, Brazil
- Group of Studies and Research of Performance, Sport, Health and Paralympic Sports-GEPEPS, Federal University of Sergipe, UFS, Sergipe, Brazil
| | | | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ana Filipa Silva
- Escola Superior Desporto e Lazer, Instituto Politécnico de Viana do Castelo, Rua Escola Industrial e Comercial de Nun'Álvares, 4900-347 Viana do Castelo, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Performance, Recreation, Innovation and Technology (SPRINT), 4960-320 Melgaço, Portugal
| | - Filipe Manuel Clemente
- Escola Superior Desporto e Lazer, Instituto Politécnico de Viana do Castelo, Rua Escola Industrial e Comercial de Nun'Álvares, 4900-347 Viana do Castelo, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Performance, Recreation, Innovation and Technology (SPRINT), 4960-320 Melgaço, Portugal
- Instituto de Telecomunicações, Delegação da Covilhã, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Hadi Nobari
- Department of Physiology, School of Sport Sciences, University of Extremadura, 10003 Cáceres, Spain
- Department of Exercise Physiology, Faculty of Educational Sciences and Psychology, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil 56199-11367, Iran
| | - Felipe J. Aidar
- Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Sergipe (UFS), São Cristóvão, Brazil
- Graduate Program of Physical Education, Federal University of Sergipe (UFS), São Cristóvão, Sergipe, Brazil
- Group of Studies and Research of Performance, Sport, Health and Paralympic Sports-GEPEPS, Federal University of Sergipe, UFS, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Georgian Badicu
- Department of Physical Education and Special Motricity, Faculty of Physical Education and Mountain Sports, Transilvania University of Brasov, 500068 Brasov, Romania
| | - Stefania Cataldi
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neuroscience and Sense Organs, University of Study of Bari, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Gianpiero Greco
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neuroscience and Sense Organs, University of Study of Bari, 70124 Bari, Italy
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Murray AA. Variability and the form-function framework in evolutionary biomechanics and human locomotion. EVOLUTIONARY HUMAN SCIENCES 2022; 4:e29. [PMID: 37588899 PMCID: PMC10426129 DOI: 10.1017/ehs.2022.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
The form-function conceptual framework, which assumes a strong relationship between the structure of a particular trait and its function, has been crucial for understanding morphological variation and locomotion among extant and fossil species across many disciplines. In biological anthropology, it is the lens through which many important questions and hypotheses have been tackled with respect to relationships between morphology and locomotor kinematics, energetics and performance. However, it is becoming increasingly evident that the morphologies of fossil hominins, apes and humans can confer considerable locomotor diversity and flexibility, and can do so with a range of kinematics depending on soft tissue plasticity and environmental and cultural factors. This complexity is not built into traditional biomechanical or mathematical models of relationships between structure and kinematics or energetics, limiting our interpretation of what bone structure is telling us about behaviour in the past. The nine papers presented in this Special Collection together address some of the challenges that variation in the relationship between form and function pose in evolutionary biomechanics, to better characterise the complexity linking structure and function and to provide tools through which we may begin to incorporate some of this complexity into our functional interpretations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison A. Murray
- Department of Anthropology, University of Victoria, Cornett Building Room B228, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, BC, CanadaV8P 5C2
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10
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Trends in Participation, Sex Differences and Age of Peak Performance in Time-Limited Ultramarathon Events: A Secular Analysis. MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2022; 58:medicina58030366. [PMID: 35334541 PMCID: PMC8952003 DOI: 10.3390/medicina58030366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Background and Objectives: Increases in the number of participants in time-limited ultra-marathons have been reported. However, no information is available regarding the trends in participation, performance and age in 12 h and 24 h time-limited events. The aim of the study was to describe the trends in runners’ participation, performance and age in 12 h and 24 h ultra-marathons for both sexes and to identify the age of peak performance, taking into account the ranking position and age categories. Materials and Methods: The sample comprised 210,455 runners in time-limited ultra-marathons (female 12 h = 23,706; female 24 h = 28,585; male 12 h = 61,594; male 24 h = 96,570) competing between 1876 and 2020 and aged 18 to 86 years. The age of peak performance was tested according to their ranking position (first−third; fourth−tenth and >tenth position) and taking into account their running speed in different age categories (<30 years; 31−40 years; 41−50 years; 51−60 years; >60 years), using the Kruskal−Wallis test, followed by the Bonferroni adjustment. Results: An increase in the number of participants and a decrease in running speed were observed across the years. For both events, the sex differences in performance decreased over time. The sex differences showed that male runners performed better than female runners, but the lowest differences in recent years were observed in the 24 h ultra-marathons. A positive trend in age across the years was found with an increase in mean age (“before 1989” = 40.33 ± 10.07 years; “1990−1999” = 44.16 ± 10.37 years; “2000−2009” = 45.99 ± 10.33 years; “2010−2020” = 45.62 ± 10.80 years). Male runners in 24 h races were the oldest (46.13 ± 10.83 years), while female runners in 12 h races were the youngest (43.46 ± 10.16 years). Athletes ranked first−third position were the youngest (female 12 h = 41.19 ± 8.87 years; female 24 h = 42.19 ± 8.50 years; male 12 h = 42.03 ± 9.40 years; male 24 h = 43.55 ± 9.03 years). When age categories were considered, the best performance was found for athletes aged between 41 and 50 years (female 12 h 6.48 ± 1.74 km/h; female 24 h 5.64 ± 1.68 km/h; male 12 h 7.19 ± 1.90 km/h; male 24 h 6.03 ± 1.78 km/h). Conclusion: A positive trend in participation in 12 h and 24 h ultra-marathons was shown across the years; however, athletes were becoming slower and older. The fastest athletes were the youngest ones, but when age intervals were considered, the age of peak performance was between 41 and 50 years.
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Knechtle B, Weiss K, Villiger E, Scheer V, Gomes TN, Gajda R, Ouerghi N, Chtourou H, Nikolaidis PT, Rosemann T, Thuany M. The Sex Difference in 6-h Ultra-Marathon Running—The Worldwide Trends from 1982 to 2020. Medicina (B Aires) 2022; 58:medicina58020179. [PMID: 35208503 PMCID: PMC8876730 DOI: 10.3390/medicina58020179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Objectives: The 6-h ultra-marathon is the shortest time-limited ultra-marathon race, but little has been investigated regarding this race format. Previously, only the age of peak performance in the context of longer time-limited ultra-marathons was determined. The purpose of this study was to investigate the trends in 6-h ultra-marathon races from 1982 to 2020 for female and male ultra-runners, the participation and performance by countries, the age of peak performance, and the differences in performance regarding countries. Materials and Methods: The sample included 23,203 female ultra-runners, aged 18–83 years, and 87,264 male ultra-runners, aged 18–85 years, who were finishers in a 6-h ultra-marathon held between 1982 and 2020. The age of peak performance was tested using the Kruskal–Wallis test, followed by the Bonferroni Correction. The difference in performance by countries was verified using a linear regression model with the fastest runners from Russia in women, and Tunisia in men, used as reference. Results: Over the years, the men-to-women ratio decreased. The mean age was 43.20 ± 9.30 years for female and 46.09 ± 10.17 years for male runners. Athletes in younger age groups were faster than athletes in older age groups. Most female and male participants originated from Germany. Women from Russia (10.01 ± 1.28 km/h) and men from Tunisia (12.16 ± 1.46 km/h) were the fastest. Conclusions: In summary, in 6-h ultra-marathons held between 1982 and 2020, the participation for both women and men increased, while the men-to-women ratio decreased. The mean age was higher in men compared to women. Most female and male runners originated from Germany, but the fastest women were from Russia, and the fastest men from Tunisia. Future studies need to investigate whether Russian women and Tunisian men are also the best in other distance-limited ultra-marathon races, such as 12-h and 24-h.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland;
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8000 Zurich, Switzerland;
- Correspondence:
| | - Katja Weiss
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland;
| | - Elias Villiger
- Klinik für Allgemeine Innere Medizin, Kantonsspital St. Gallen, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland;
| | - Volker Scheer
- Ultra Sports Science Foundation, 69310 Pierre-Benite, France;
- Department Sports and Health, Institute of Sports Medicine, Paderborn University, 33098 Paderborn, Germany
| | - Thayse Natacha Gomes
- Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristóvão 49100-000, Brazil;
| | - Robert Gajda
- Center for Sports Cardiology, Gajda-Med Medical Center in Pułtusk, 06-100 Pułtusk, Poland;
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Prevention, Jan Dlugosz University in Częstochowa, 42-200 Częstochowa, Poland
| | - Nejmeddine Ouerghi
- High Institute of Sport and Physical Education of Kef, University of Jendouba, UR13JS01, Kef 7100, Tunisia;
- Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, Rabta Hospital, University of Tunis El Manar, LR99ES11, Tunis 1007, Tunisia
| | - Hamdi Chtourou
- Institut Supérieur du Sport et de l’Education Physique de Sfax, Université de Sfax, Sfax 3000, Tunisia;
- Activité Physique, Sport et Santé, UR18JS01, Observatoire National du Sport, Tunis 1003, Tunisia
| | | | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8000 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Mabliny Thuany
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal;
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12
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Influence of Female Sex Hormones on Ultra-Running Performance and Post-Race Recovery: Role of Testosterone. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph181910403. [PMID: 34639701 PMCID: PMC8508191 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph181910403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, increasing numbers of women have participated in extremely long races. In adult males, there is a clear association between physiological levels of endogenous sex hormones and physical performance. However, the influence of plasmatic sex hormones and the effects of different types of hormonal contraception (HC) on the modulation of physical performance in adult females remain to be fully clarified. Eighteen female ultra-endurance athletes were recruited to participate in the study. Different variables were studied, including hematological parameters, body mass index, and body composition. Strength measurements were obtained using the squat-jump and hand-grip test. A repeated-measures analysis demonstrated significant differences in hematological values of CK and LDH pre-race as compared to immediately post-race and after 24/48 h. Furthermore, statistical differences were found in squat-jump and hand-grip test results after the ultramarathon. Testosterone, estradiol, and the testosterone/estrogen ratio were significantly correlated with muscle fatigue and were found to be indirect markers of muscle damage. A multivariate analysis demonstrated the protective role of testosterone against muscle damage and severe fatigue. Fluctuations in endogenous testosterone levels were correlated with greater fatigability and muscle damage after the competition. Adjusting the menstrual cycle with HC would not provide any further benefit to the athlete's competitive capacity.
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13
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Pagourelias ED, Christou GA, Sotiriou PG, Anifanti MA, Koutlianos NA, Tsironi MP, Christou KA, Vassilikos VP, Deligiannis AP, Kouidi EJ. Impact of a 246 Km ultra-marathon running race on heart: Insights from advanced deformation analysis. Eur J Sport Sci 2021; 22:1287-1295. [PMID: 33980129 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2021.1930194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Although previous studies suggest that prolonged intense exercise such as marathon running transitorily alters cardiac function, there is little information regarding ultramarathon races. Aim of this study was to investigate the acute impact of ultra-endurance exercise (UEE) on heart, applying advanced strain imaging. Echocardiographic assessment was performed the day before and at the finish line of "Spartathlon": A 246 Km ultra-marathon running race. 2D speckle-tracking echocardiography was performed in all four chambers, evaluating longitudinal strain (LS) for both ventricles and atria. Peak strain values and temporal parameters adjusted for heart rate were extracted from the derived curves. Out of 60 participants initially screened, 27 athletes (19 male, age 45 ± 7 years) finished the race in 33:34:27(28:50:38-35:07:07) hours. Absolute values of right (RV) and left ventricular (LV) LS (RVLS -22.9 ± 3.6 pre- to -21.2 ± 3.0% post-, p=0.04 and LVLS -20.9 ± 2.3 pre- to -18.8 ± 2.0 post-, p=0.009) slightly decreased post-race, whereas atrial strain did not change. RV and LV LS decrease was caused mainly by strain impairment of basal regions with apical preservation. Inter-chamber relationships assessed through RV/LV, LV/LA, RV/RA and RA/LA peak values' ratios remained unchanged from pre to post-race. Finally, UEE caused an extension of the systolic phase of cardiac cycle with concomitant diastole reduction (p<0.001 for all strain curves). Conclusively, ventricular LS strain as well as effective diastolic period slightly decreased, whereas atrial strain and inter-chamber relationships remained unchanged after running a 246-km-ultra-marathon race. These changes may be attributed to concomitant pre- and afterload alterations following UEE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Efstathios D Pagourelias
- Sports Medicine Laboratory, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece.,Third Cardiology Department, Hippokrateion University Hospital, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Georgios A Christou
- Sports Medicine Laboratory, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Panagiota G Sotiriou
- Sports Medicine Laboratory, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Maria A Anifanti
- Sports Medicine Laboratory, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Nikolaos A Koutlianos
- Sports Medicine Laboratory, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Maria P Tsironi
- Faculty of Human Movement and Quality of Life Sciences, Department of Nursing, University of Peloponnese, Sparta, Greece
| | - Konstantinos A Christou
- Sports Medicine Laboratory, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Vasileios P Vassilikos
- Third Cardiology Department, Hippokrateion University Hospital, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Asterios P Deligiannis
- Sports Medicine Laboratory, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Evangelia J Kouidi
- Sports Medicine Laboratory, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
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Ishihara K, Inamura N, Tani A, Shima D, Kuramochi A, Nonaka T, Oneda H, Nakamura Y. Contribution of Solid Food to Achieve Individual Nutritional Requirement during a Continuous 438 km Mountain Ultramarathon in Female Athlete. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18105153. [PMID: 34067992 PMCID: PMC8152256 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18105153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2021] [Revised: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Background: Races and competitions over 100 miles have recently increased. Limited information exists about the effect of multiday continuous endurance exercise on blood glucose control and appropriate intake of food and drink in a female athlete. The present study aimed to examine the variation of blood glucose control and its relationship with nutritional intake and running performance in a professional female athlete during a 155.7 h ultramarathon race with little sleep. Methods: We divided the mountain course of 438 km into 33 segments by timing gates and continuously monitored the participant’s glucose profile throughout the ultramarathon. The running speed in each segment was standardized to the scheduled required time-based on three trial runs. Concurrently, the accompanying runners recorded the participant’s food and drink intake. Nutrient, energy, and water intake were then calculated. Results: Throughout the ultramarathon of 155.7 h, including 16.0 h of rest and sleep, diurnal variation had almost disappeared with the overall increase in blood glucose levels (25–30 mg/dL) compared with that during resting (p < 0.0001). Plasma total protein and triglyceride levels were decreased after the ultramarathon. The intake of protein and fat directly or indirectly contributed to maintaining blood glucose levels and running speed as substrates for gluconeogenesis or as alternative sources of energy when the carbohydrate intake was at a lower recommended limit. The higher amounts of nutrient intakes from solid foods correlated with a higher running pace compared with those from liquids and gels to supply carbohydrates, protein, and fat. Conclusion: Carbohydrate, protein, and fat intake from solid foods contributed to maintaining a fast pace with a steady, mild rise in blood glucose levels compared with liquids and gels when female runner completed a multiday continuous ultramarathon with little sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kengo Ishihara
- Department of Food Sciences and Human Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Ryukoku University, Shiga 520-2194, Japan; (N.I.); (A.T.); (D.S.); (A.K.); (Y.N.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-77-599-5601 (ext. 2011)
| | - Naho Inamura
- Department of Food Sciences and Human Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Ryukoku University, Shiga 520-2194, Japan; (N.I.); (A.T.); (D.S.); (A.K.); (Y.N.)
| | - Asuka Tani
- Department of Food Sciences and Human Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Ryukoku University, Shiga 520-2194, Japan; (N.I.); (A.T.); (D.S.); (A.K.); (Y.N.)
| | - Daisuke Shima
- Department of Food Sciences and Human Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Ryukoku University, Shiga 520-2194, Japan; (N.I.); (A.T.); (D.S.); (A.K.); (Y.N.)
| | - Ai Kuramochi
- Department of Food Sciences and Human Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Ryukoku University, Shiga 520-2194, Japan; (N.I.); (A.T.); (D.S.); (A.K.); (Y.N.)
| | | | | | - Yasuyuki Nakamura
- Department of Food Sciences and Human Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Ryukoku University, Shiga 520-2194, Japan; (N.I.); (A.T.); (D.S.); (A.K.); (Y.N.)
- Department of Public Health, Shiga University of Medical Science, Shiga 520-2192, Japan
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15
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Knechtle B, Lepers R, Nikolaidis PT, Sousa CV. Editorial: The Elderly Athlete. Front Physiol 2021; 12:686858. [PMID: 34025460 PMCID: PMC8138177 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.686858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, St. Gallen, Switzerland.,Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Romuald Lepers
- CAPS UMR1093 INSERM, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, Dijon, France
| | | | - Caio Victor Sousa
- Bouve College of Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
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From Athens to Sparta-37 Years of Spartathlon. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18094914. [PMID: 34063017 PMCID: PMC8124832 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18094914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
(1) Background: Recent studies analyzed the participation and performance trends of historic races such as the oldest ultra-marathon (Comrades) or the oldest 100-km ultra-marathon (Biel). One of the toughest and historic ultra-marathons in the world is the ‘Spartathlon’ (246-km ultra-marathon from Athens to Sparta). The present study aimed to analyze the trends in participation and performance of this race. (2) Methods: Different general linear models were applied as follows: the first model was a two-way ANOVA (Decade × Sex), with separate models for all participants and for only the top five finishers in each race; the second model was a two-way ANOVA (Age Group × Sex); the third model was a two-way ANOVA (Nationality × Sex). (3) Results: Between 1982 and 2019, 3504 ultra-marathoners (3097 men and 407 women) officially finished the Spartathlon at least once. Athletes from Japan were the majority with 737 participants, followed by far by runners from Germany (n = 393), Greece (n = 326), and France (n = 274). The nations with the highest numbers of athletes amongst the top five performers were Japan (n = 71), followed by Germany (n = 59), and Great Britain (n = 31). Runners from the USA were the fastest in men, and runners from Great Britain were the fastest in women. Female and male runners improved performance across the decades. The annual five fastest women and men improved their performance over time. Runners achieved their best performance earlier in life (20–29 and 30–39 years) than female runners (30–39 and 40–49 years). Runners in age group 30–39 years were the fastest for all nationalities, except for Greece. (4) Conclusions: Successful finishers in the Spartathlon improved performance in the last four decades and male runners achieved their best performance ~10 years earlier in life than female runners.
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