High BMI and Low Muscular Fitness Predict Low Motor Competence in School-Aged Children Living in Low-Resourced Areas

Motor Competence as a Protection Factor Against Pediatric Obesity: The Bidirectional Relationship Between Motor Competence and Weight Status

Purpose: Motor competence is negatively associated with body mass index (BMI) in young people. However, it is still unclear whether motor competence is linked to the risk of obesity in adolescents and longitudinal evidence is missing. The main purpose of this study was to assess the association between motor competence and risk of obesity across adolescence. Methods: A 2-year follow-up study was conducted with a total of 122 adolescents (59.8% girls) aged 12 to 13 years at baseline. Motor competence (KTK), weight status (BMI) and physical activity (questionnaire) were assessed at three time points. Generalized estimating equation and logistic regression models were conducted to examine the relationships between motor competence and weight status, adjusting for potential confounders (i.e. age, sex and physical activity). Results: Motor competence and BMI were inversely related over time. The chance to have overweight/obesity decreased by 6.5% and 8% with a 10-point increase in motor competence across time. In addition, adolescents had 6.4 to 8.2 greater chance to have low motor competence with a 1-point increase in BMI across time. Conclusion: Motor competence is inversely associated with the risk of overweight/obesity across adolescence. Therefore, the development of motor competence can be a protection factor against excessive weight gain. As such, we recommend the development of motor competence as a strategy to prevent pediatric obesity through diversified types of physical activities such as sports, active play and physical education classes.

Do Gender and BMI Affect the Motor Skills of Five-Year-Old Preschoolers Differently?

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE

Weight gain is associated with numerous health complications and constitutes a serious public health problem. Motor competence (MC) can be a protective factor since children's participation and practice in physical activities can improve their health. The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of gender and BMI on MC [i.e., manual dexterity (MD), aiming and catching (A&C), balance (Bal), and total MC percentile (TP)] depending on gender (boy/girl) and BMI (normal weight, overweight or obesity).

METHODS

The MABC-2 battery was applied in a sample of 368 preschool children (5.69 ± 0.28 years of age; 54.9% girls).

RESULTS

Boys and girls showed statistically significant differences in MC components: boys had higher scores in A&C (p = 0.002), while girls excelled in MD (p < 0.001), Bal (p = 0.035); TP (p < 0.001), and BMI [Bal (p = 0.009); TP (p = 0.050)], with a higher percentile in those children with overweight in both cases. Statistically significant differences were also found in the interactions between gender*BMI [MD (p < 0.001) and TP (p < 0.001)].

CONCLUSIONS

The findings showed that there were notable variations in total percentile, balance, and manual dexterity between boys and girls. In addition, girls outperformed boys in all categories save aiming and catching. However, males who were overweight or obese earned greater percentiles in both balance and the MABC-2 battery's total percentile.

Do Girls Have an Advantage Compared to Boys When Their Motor Skills Are Tested Using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, 2nd Edition?

This study aims to investigate sex-related differences in raw item scores on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, 2nd Edition (MABC-2) in a large data set collected in different regions across the world, seeking to unravel whether there is an interaction effect between sex and the origin of the sample (European versus African). In this retrospective study, a secondary analysis was performed on anonymized data of 7654 children with a mean age of 8.6 (range 3 to 16; SD: 3.4), 50.0% of whom were boys. Since country-specific norms were not available for all samples, the raw scores per age band (AB) were used for analysis. Our results clearly show that in all age bands sex-related differences are present. In AB1 and AB2, girls score better on most manual dexterity and balance items, but not aiming and catching items, whereas in AB3 the differences seem to diminish. Especially in the European sample, girls outperform boys in manual dexterity and balance items, whereas in the African sample these differences are less marked. In conclusion, separate norms for boys and girls are needed in addition to separate norms for geographical regions.

The Impact of Obesity on the Fitness Performance of School-Aged Children Living in Rural Areas-The West Attica Project

This study aimed to investigate the relationship of body mass index (BMI) with muscle and cardiorespiratory fitness in children living within rural areas (regional unit of West Attica) in Greece. Participants included 399 students (187 boys, 212 girls), ages 8-12 years old, and were evaluated in physical performance tests. The point prevalence of overweight and obesity was 21.39% and 26.20% in boys, and 19.90% and 23.79% in girls. Significant differences were observed in all physical performance tests (handgrip, long jump, shuttle run, trunk flexors, and extensors endurance) between normal weight and obese participants. BMI was positively correlated with handgrip (r = 0.442-0.462, p < 0.001). There was a negative association with long jump (r = -0.206, p < 0.001), 20 m shuttle run (r = -0.394, p < 0.001), trunk flexors (r = -0.403, p < 0.001) and trunk extensors endurance (r = -0.280, p < 0.001). The regression analysis showed that 20-30% of the overall variation for physical performance assessments could be accounted for by BMI, age, and sex. With the exception of the long jump and the endurance of the trunk extensors, BMI alone may explain more than 10% of the outcome of most tests. This study highlights the determinant of BMI on muscle and cardiorespiratory fitness. The management of obesity should begin early in childhood to prevent adult chronic cardiovascular and metabolic diseases.

School-Based Comprehensive Strength Training Interventions to Improve Muscular Fitness and Perceived Physical Competence in Chinese Male Adolescents

Purpose. This research was to see how effective and feasible school-based comprehensive strength training programs are in improving muscular fitness and perceived physical competence in Chinese male adolescents. Methods. A total of 123 participants ( $13.46\pm 0.60$ years) were randomized to comprehensive strength training intervention group (CST) ( $n=62$ ) and the control group (CON) ( $n=61$ ). The training sessions were performed three times a week for ten weeks in CST. Muscular fitness (i.e., muscular strength, power, and muscular endurance) and perceived physical competence were assessed at initial testing and final testing. Results.The subjects in the CST significantly improved their mean performance in standing long jump ( $p<0.05$ ), vertical jump ( $p<0.05$ ), 1 min push-ups ( $p<0.05$ ), 1 min sit-ups ( $p<0.05$ ), handgrip strength ( $p<0.05$ ), and perceived physical competence ( $p<0.05$ ) after the intervention. Moreover, the CST were greater in standing long jump ( $p<0.05$ ), vertical jump ( $p<0.05$ ), 1 min sit-ups ( $p<0.05$ ), handgrip strength ( $p<0.05$ ), and perceived physical competence ( $p<0.05$ ) compared to the CON, but no in 1 min push-ups ( $p>0.05$ ). Conclusions. The comprehensive strength training interventions designed in this study can significantly increase male adolescents’ muscular fitness, especially in the lower extremity muscle power and abdominal core endurance, and can enhance their perceived physical competence.

Differences in the manifestation of balance according to BMI levels for women students of the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports

Abstract Background: Static and dynamic balance are factors of major importance in the manifestation of human motor skills at a higher level. Purpose: The determination of vari-ations in the performance of balance tests for young women students at the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports (48 cases in the 1st year of bachelor's degree), divided and analyzed 3 BMI levels (underweight / 7 cases, normal weight / 34 cases and overweight / 7 cases) and comparing these results with other similar research. Material and method: The testing of the group was scheduled at the Research Center for Human Performance, be-longing to the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports in Galați, in the month of April of the 2018-2019 academic year. For the assessment of balance, 7 tests were used, of which 4 associated with dynamic postural stability (Walk and turn field sobriety test/errors, Func-tional reach test/cm, Fukuda test/degrees of rotation, Bass test/ points) and 3 measuring static stability (Flamingo test/falls, One leg standing with eyes closed/sec, Stork test/sec). Nonparametric tests (Mann-Whitney U) were applied to compare differences between batches. Results: The average values of underweight and normal-weight women are better than those of overweight women for the entire set of assessment tests. The underweight group has the best results for the Standing balance test, Functional reach test, Flamingo test, Walk and turn field sobriety test, Fukuda test, and the normal weight women for Stork test, respectively Bass test. We found a lack of significant thresholds when comparing the results between the 3 groups (P> 0.05) for Stork test, Standing balance test and Functional reach test, so the working hypothesis formulated is only partially confirmed. The only significant difference between underweight and normal weight (P <0.05) is found in the Flamingo test, with better values for underweight. Significant difference thresholds for Flamingo test and Fukuda test are recorded between the underweight and overweight groups (Z values have associated thresholds P<0.05). The most significant differences are found between the normal weight and overweight groups (P <0.05), respectively for the Bass test, Fukuda test and Walk and turn field sobriety test. Conclusion: Constant physical activity (as a feature of the analyzed group) reduces the chances of significant differences in all balance tests between BMI levels. Keywords: female students; university specialization; static and dynamic postural control; physical activity

How can instructions and feedback with external focus be shaped to enhance motor learning in children? A systematic review

Aim

This systematic review investigates the effectiveness of instructions and feedback with external focus applied with reduced frequency, self-controlled timing and/or in visual or auditory form, on the performance of functional gross motor tasks in children aged 2 to 18 with typical or atypical development.

Methods

Four databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Embase) were systematically searched (last updated May 31st 2021). Inclusion criteria were: 1. children aged 2 to 18 years old; 2. Instructions/feedback with external focus applied with reduced frequency, self-controlled timing, and/or visual or auditory form as intervention, to learn functional gross motor tasks; 3. Instructions/feedback with external focus applied with continuous frequency, instructor-controlled timing, and/or verbal form as control; 4. performance measure as outcome; 5. (randomized) controlled studies. Article selection and risk of bias assessment (with the Cochrane risk of bias tools) was conducted by two reviewers independently. Due to heterogeneity in study characteristics and incompleteness of the reported data, a best-evidence synthesis was performed.

Results

Thirteen studies of low methodological quality were included, investigating effectiveness of reduced frequencies (n = 8), self-controlled timing (n = 5) and visual form (n = 1) on motor performance of inexperienced typically (n = 348) and atypically (n = 195) developing children, for acquisition, retention and/or transfer. For accuracy, conflicting or no evidence was found for most comparisons, at most time points. However, there was moderate evidence that self-controlled feedback was most effective for retention, and limited evidence that visual analogy was most effective for retention and transfer. To improve quality of movement, there was limited evidence that continuous frequency was most effective for retention and transfer.

Conclusion

More methodologically sound studies are needed to draw conclusions about the preferred frequency, timing or form. However, we cautiously advise considering self-controlled feedback, visual instructions, and continuous frequency.

Trial registration

Registration: Prospero CRD42021225723. https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42021225723.

Underweight children are agile but lack power

Given the knowledge gap in literature on the impact of undernutrition on muscular power and agility in school-aged children, the aim of this study was to compare physical fitness in such underweight- and normal weight children. In this cross-sectional study, 853 children were included (459 boys; mean age: 9.2 (1.8) years). The children were grouped according to their BMI-for-age-and-sex: normal weight (− 1 ≤ z-score < 2) and underweight (z-score < − 1). Within the underweight group, three thinness subgroups were composed: grade 1 (− 2 ≤ z-score < − 1), grade 2 (− 3 ≤ z-score < − 2) and grade 3 (z-score < − 3). Their agility, muscular endurance and power were assessed with the Performance and Fitness test battery (PERF-FIT). Regardless the country they lived in, the underweight children showed better agility (p = 0.012) and muscular endurance (p = 0.004) than those with normal weight. They presented with lower muscular power than the normal weight group, shown by significantly shorter overhead throwing distances (p = 0.017) and less standing long jump peak power (p < 0.001). The standing long jump peak power decreased further with increasing thinness grade (p = 0.027).

Conclusion: Underweight children are more agile, but have lower muscular power compared to their normal weight peers. Its relationship with motor competence and physical activity, necessitates attention for tackling muscular strength deficiencies in these children, enabling them to meet the basic requirements for a healthy lifestyle later in life.

The Association of Gender and Body Mass Index on the Values of Static and Dynamic Balance of University Students (A Cross-Sectional Design Study)

The balance of the body conditions the quality and efficiency of the movements in daily and sports activities, its impairment generating problems in the manifestation of motor skills for all age groups. The aim of this study is to analyze how the gender and BMI values of university students influence the results of the static and dynamic balance tests applied. The investigated group consists of 195 undergraduate students, from various specializations of the Dunărea de Jos University in Galați (99 males and 96 females, ages = 20.16 ± 1.98, BMI = 24.15 ± 5.68). The independent variables gender and BMI levels (underweight, normal weight and overweight/obese) were defined. The participants were evaluated in May 2019 using a series of 7 tests: one leg standing test with eyes closed, stork test, flamingo test, Bass test, functional reach test, walk and turn field sobriety test and Fukuda test. The results provided using multivariate analysis (MANOVA) indicate balanced performance for the gender variable, but with significantly better values for women in the one leg standing test, flamingo test and functional reach test (F values are associated with thresholds p < 0.05). Men obtain slightly better, but statistically insignificant (p > 0.05), performances on the stork test, Bass test and Fukuda test. The BMI step comparison confirms the difficulties of the overweight group in assessing balance, with the lowest scores in maintaining static positions and the most errors in dynamic balance tests, with significant differences from normal and underweight in most tests (p < 0.05). An interesting aspect is the slightly superior performance of the underweight compared to the normal weight group, for the one leg standing test, flamingo test and walk and turn field sobriety test. The analysis of Spearman correlation coefficients indicates a number of significant associations between elevated BMI values and decreased performance on balance tests.

Children with Poor Motor Skills Have Lower Health-Related Fitness Compared to Typically Developing Children

Most of the current empirical evidence regarding the relationship between health-related fitness and level of motor performance is based on children from high-income countries. Yet, children from low-resource areas may have fewer opportunities to develop their fitness skills. The aim of the study was to determine if South African children from both low- and middle-income areas scoring below the 16th percentile on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (probable-Developmental Coordination Disorder (p-DCD)) have lower health-related fitness levels than typically developing (TD) children. We hypothesized that children with p-DCD would have lower overall health-related fitness than TD children. A sample of 146 participants aged 10 to 11 (10.05 years (SD = 0.41)) was collected from schools in the North West Province of South Africa, on the basis of their poverty classification. Children were tested for anaerobic capacity and strength using the Bruininks-Oseretsky test of motor proficiency second edition (BOT-2) and aerobic capacity using the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER). Body composition was evaluated using body mass index corrected for age and sex (BMI-z), body fat (BF), and waist circumference. The data was analyzed using Spearman correlations and chi-squared tests. Statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) were found between groups for running and agility, strength, and aerobic capacity. No significant differences were found between p-DCD and TD groups in terms of body mass (36.1 kg vs. 33.3 kg), waist circumference (62.2 cm vs. 59.8 cm), BMI-z (19.7 vs. 17.6), and fat percentage (20.2 vs. 18.1%). Overweight and obesity prevalence was 15% in those with low socio-economic status (SES) and 27% in high SES. In conclusion, children with p-DCD had lower muscular strength, aerobic capacity, and endurance than TD children. Although it has been reported that children with p-DCD have a higher risk for overweight/obesity than TD children, this is not (yet) the case in 10-11-year-old children living in rural areas in South Africa (North West Province).