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Schmiege D, Haselhoff T, Thomas A, Kraiselburd I, Meyer F, Moebus S. Small-scale wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) for infectious diseases and antibiotic resistance: A scoping review. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2024; 259:114379. [PMID: 38626689 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2024.114379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Revised: 03/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/18/2024]
Abstract
Wastewater analysis can serve as a source of public health information. In recent years, wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has emerged and proven useful for the detection of infectious diseases. However, insights from the wastewater treatment plant do not allow for the small-scale differentiation within the sewer system that is needed to analyze the target population under study in more detail. Small-scale WBE offers several advantages, but there has been no systematic overview of its application. The aim of this scoping review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge on small-scale WBE for infectious diseases, including methodological considerations for its application. A systematic database search was conducted, considering only peer-reviewed articles. Data analyses included quantitative summary and qualitative narrative synthesis. Of 2130 articles, we included 278, most of which were published since 2020. The studies analyzed wastewater at the building level (n = 203), especially healthcare (n = 110) and educational facilities (n = 80), and at the neighborhood scale (n = 86). The main analytical parameters were viruses (n = 178), notably SARS-CoV-2 (n = 161), and antibiotic resistance (ABR) biomarkers (n = 99), often analyzed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), with DNA sequencing techniques being less common. In terms of sampling techniques, active sampling dominated. The frequent lack of detailed information on the specification of selection criteria and the characterization of the small-scale sampling sites was identified as a concern. In conclusion, based on the large number of studies, we identified several methodological considerations and overarching strategic aspects for small-scale WBE. An enabling environment for small-scale WBE requires inter- and transdisciplinary knowledge sharing across countries. Promoting the adoption of small-scale WBE will benefit from a common international conceptualization of the approach, including standardized and internationally accepted terminology. In particular, the development of good WBE practices for different aspects of small-scale WBE is warranted. This includes the establishment of guidelines for a comprehensive characterization of the local sewer system and its sub-sewersheds, and transparent reporting to ensure comparability of small-scale WBE results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Schmiege
- Institute for Urban Public Health (InUPH), University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45130, Essen, Germany.
| | - Timo Haselhoff
- Institute for Urban Public Health (InUPH), University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45130, Essen, Germany
| | - Alexander Thomas
- Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine (IKIM), University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45131, Essen, Germany
| | - Ivana Kraiselburd
- Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine (IKIM), University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45131, Essen, Germany
| | - Folker Meyer
- Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine (IKIM), University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45131, Essen, Germany
| | - Susanne Moebus
- Institute for Urban Public Health (InUPH), University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45130, Essen, Germany
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2
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Acheampong E, Husain AA, Dudani H, Nayak AR, Nag A, Meena E, Shrivastava SK, McClure P, Tarr AW, Crooks C, Lade R, Gomes RL, Singer A, Kumar S, Bhatnagar T, Arora S, Kashyap RS, Monaghan TM. Population infection estimation from wastewater surveillance for SARS-CoV-2 in Nagpur, India during the second pandemic wave. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0303529. [PMID: 38809825 PMCID: PMC11135679 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0303529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024] Open
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has emerged as an effective environmental surveillance tool for predicting severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) disease outbreaks in high-income countries (HICs) with centralized sewage infrastructure. However, few studies have applied WBE alongside epidemic disease modelling to estimate the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in low-resource settings. This study aimed to explore the feasibility of collecting untreated wastewater samples from rural and urban catchment areas of Nagpur district, to detect and quantify SARS-CoV-2 using real-time qPCR, to compare geographic differences in viral loads, and to integrate the wastewater data into a modified Susceptible-Exposed-Infectious-Confirmed Positives-Recovered (SEIPR) model. Of the 983 wastewater samples analyzed for SARS-CoV-2 RNA, we detected significantly higher sample positivity rates, 43.7% (95% confidence interval (CI) 40.1, 47.4) and 30.4% (95% CI 24.66, 36.66), and higher viral loads for the urban compared with rural samples, respectively. The Basic reproductive number, R0, positively correlated with population density and negatively correlated with humidity, a proxy for rainfall and dilution of waste in the sewers. The SEIPR model estimated the rate of unreported coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases at the start of the wave as 13.97 [95% CI (10.17, 17.0)] times that of confirmed cases, representing a material difference in cases and healthcare resource burden. Wastewater surveillance might prove to be a more reliable way to prepare for surges in COVID-19 cases during future waves for authorities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward Acheampong
- Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
- School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, United Kingdom
- Food Water Waste Research Group, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Aliabbas A. Husain
- Research Centre, Dr G.M. Taori Central India Institute of Medical Sciences (CIIMS), Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
| | - Hemanshi Dudani
- Research Centre, Dr G.M. Taori Central India Institute of Medical Sciences (CIIMS), Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
| | - Amit R. Nayak
- Research Centre, Dr G.M. Taori Central India Institute of Medical Sciences (CIIMS), Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
| | - Aditi Nag
- Dr B.Lal Institute of Biotechnology, 6-E, Malviya Industrial Area, Malviya Nagar, Jaipur, India
| | - Ekta Meena
- Dr B.Lal Institute of Biotechnology, 6-E, Malviya Industrial Area, Malviya Nagar, Jaipur, India
| | - Sandeep K. Shrivastava
- Dr B.Lal Institute of Biotechnology, 6-E, Malviya Industrial Area, Malviya Nagar, Jaipur, India
| | - Patrick McClure
- National Institute for Health Research Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Nottingham, United Kingdom
- Queen’s Medical Centre, School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
- Wolfson Centre for Global Virus Research, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander W. Tarr
- National Institute for Health Research Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Nottingham, United Kingdom
- Queen’s Medical Centre, School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
- Wolfson Centre for Global Virus Research, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Colin Crooks
- National Institute for Health Research Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Nottingham, United Kingdom
- Nottingham Digestive Diseases Centre, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | | | - Rachel L. Gomes
- Food Water Waste Research Group, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Singer
- UK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford, United Kingdom
| | - Saravana Kumar
- ICMR-National Institute of Epidemiology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Tarun Bhatnagar
- ICMR-National Institute of Epidemiology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Sudipti Arora
- Dr B.Lal Institute of Biotechnology, 6-E, Malviya Industrial Area, Malviya Nagar, Jaipur, India
| | - Rajpal Singh Kashyap
- Dr B.Lal Institute of Biotechnology, 6-E, Malviya Industrial Area, Malviya Nagar, Jaipur, India
| | - Tanya M. Monaghan
- National Institute for Health Research Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Nottingham, United Kingdom
- Nottingham Digestive Diseases Centre, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
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3
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Harrington A, Vo V, Moshi MA, Chang CL, Baker H, Ghani N, Itorralba JY, Papp K, Gerrity D, Moser D, Oh EC. Environmental Surveillance of Flood Control Infrastructure Impacted by Unsheltered Individuals Leads to the Detection of SARS-CoV-2 and Novel Mutations in the Spike Gene. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY LETTERS 2024; 11:410-417. [PMID: 38752195 PMCID: PMC11095249 DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.3c00938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
In the United States, the growing number of people experiencing homelessness has become a socioeconomic crisis with public health ramifications, recently exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. We hypothesized that the environmental surveillance of flood control infrastructure may be an effective approach to understand the prevalence of infectious disease. From December 2021 through July 2022, we tested for SARS-CoV-2 RNA from two flood control channels known to be impacted by unsheltered individuals residing in upstream tunnels. Using qPCR, we detected SARS-CoV-2 RNA in these environmental water samples when significant COVID-19 outbreaks were occurring in the surrounding community. We also performed whole genome sequencing to identify SARS-CoV-2 lineages. Variant compositions were consistent with those of geographically and temporally matched municipal wastewater samples and clinical specimens. However, we also detected 10 of 22 mutations specific to the Alpha variant in the environmental water samples collected during January 2022-one year after the Alpha infection peak. We also identified mutations in the spike gene that have never been identified in published reports. Our findings demonstrate that environmental surveillance of flood control infrastructure may be an effective tool to understand public health conditions among unsheltered individuals-a vulnerable population that is underrepresented in clinical surveillance data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Harrington
- Laboratory
of Neurogenetics and Precision Medicine, College of Sciences, Neuroscience Interdisciplinary
Ph.D. program, Department of Brain Health, Department of Internal Medicine, Kirk Kerkorian
School of Medicine at UNLV, University of
Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154, United States
| | - Van Vo
- Laboratory
of Neurogenetics and Precision Medicine, College of Sciences, Neuroscience Interdisciplinary
Ph.D. program, Department of Brain Health, Department of Internal Medicine, Kirk Kerkorian
School of Medicine at UNLV, University of
Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154, United States
| | - Michael A. Moshi
- Laboratory
of Neurogenetics and Precision Medicine, College of Sciences, Neuroscience Interdisciplinary
Ph.D. program, Department of Brain Health, Department of Internal Medicine, Kirk Kerkorian
School of Medicine at UNLV, University of
Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154, United States
| | - Ching-Lan Chang
- Laboratory
of Neurogenetics and Precision Medicine, College of Sciences, Neuroscience Interdisciplinary
Ph.D. program, Department of Brain Health, Department of Internal Medicine, Kirk Kerkorian
School of Medicine at UNLV, University of
Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154, United States
| | - Hayley Baker
- Laboratory
of Neurogenetics and Precision Medicine, College of Sciences, Neuroscience Interdisciplinary
Ph.D. program, Department of Brain Health, Department of Internal Medicine, Kirk Kerkorian
School of Medicine at UNLV, University of
Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154, United States
| | - Nabih Ghani
- Laboratory
of Neurogenetics and Precision Medicine, College of Sciences, Neuroscience Interdisciplinary
Ph.D. program, Department of Brain Health, Department of Internal Medicine, Kirk Kerkorian
School of Medicine at UNLV, University of
Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154, United States
| | - Jose Yani Itorralba
- Laboratory
of Neurogenetics and Precision Medicine, College of Sciences, Neuroscience Interdisciplinary
Ph.D. program, Department of Brain Health, Department of Internal Medicine, Kirk Kerkorian
School of Medicine at UNLV, University of
Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154, United States
| | - Katerina Papp
- Southern
Nevada Water Authority, P.O. Box 99954, Las Vegas Nevada 89193, United States
| | - Daniel Gerrity
- Southern
Nevada Water Authority, P.O. Box 99954, Las Vegas Nevada 89193, United States
| | - Duane Moser
- Division
of Hydrologic Sciences, Desert Research
Institute, Las Vegas, Nevada 89119, United States
| | - Edwin C. Oh
- Laboratory
of Neurogenetics and Precision Medicine, College of Sciences, Neuroscience Interdisciplinary
Ph.D. program, Department of Brain Health, Department of Internal Medicine, Kirk Kerkorian
School of Medicine at UNLV, University of
Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154, United States
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Vigil K, D'Souza N, Bazner J, Cedraz FMA, Fisch S, Rose JB, Aw TG. Long-term monitoring of SARS-CoV-2 variants in wastewater using a coordinated workflow of droplet digital PCR and nanopore sequencing. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 254:121338. [PMID: 38430753 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and genome sequencing are important methods for wastewater surveillance of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The reverse transcription-droplet digital PCR (RT-ddPCR) is a highly sensitive method for quantifying SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater samples to track the trends of viral activity levels but cannot identify new variants. It also takes time to develop new PCR-based assays targeting variants of interest. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) can be used to monitor known and new SARS-CoV-2 variants, but it is generally not quantitative. Several short-read sequencing techniques can be expensive and might experience delayed turnaround times when outsourced due to inadequate in-house resources. Recently, a portable nanopore sequencing system offers an affordable and real-time method for sequencing SARS-CoV-2 variants in wastewater. This technology has the potential to enable swift response to disease outbreaks without relying on clinical sequencing results. In addressing concerns related to rapid turnaround time and accurate variant analysis, both RT-ddPCR and nanopore sequencing methods were employed to monitor the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants in wastewater. This surveillance was conducted at 23 sewer maintenance hole sites and five wastewater treatment plants in Michigan from 2020 to 2022. In 2020, the wastewater samples were dominated by the parental variants (20A, 20C and 20 G), followed by 20I (Alpha, B.1.1.7) in early 2021 and the Delta variant of concern (VOC) in late 2021. For the year 2022, Omicron variants dominated. Nanopore sequencing has the potential to validate suspected variant cases that were initially undetermined by RT-ddPCR assays. The concordance rate between nanopore sequencing and RT-ddPCR assays in identifying SARS-CoV-2 variants to the clade-level was 76.9%. Notably, instances of disagreement between the two methods were most prominent in the identification of the parental and Omicron variants. We also showed that sequencing wastewater samples with SARS-CoV-2 N gene concentrations of >104 GC/100 ml as measured by RT-ddPCR improve genome recovery and coverage depth using MinION device. RT-ddPCR was better at detecting key spike protein mutations A67V, del69-70, K417N, L452R, N501Y, N679K, and R408S (p-value <0.05) as compared to nanopore sequencing. It is suggested that RT-ddPCR and nanopore sequencing should be coordinated in wastewater surveillance where RT-ddPCR can be used as a preliminary quantification method and nanopore sequencing as the confirmatory method for the detection of variants or identification of new variants. The RT-ddPCR and nanopore sequencing methods reported here can be adopted as a reliable in-house analysis of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater for rapid community level surveillance and public health response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie Vigil
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, 1440 Canal Street, Suite 2100, New Orleans, LA 70112, United States
| | - Nishita D'Souza
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States
| | - Julia Bazner
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States
| | - Fernanda Mac-Allister Cedraz
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, 1440 Canal Street, Suite 2100, New Orleans, LA 70112, United States
| | - Samuel Fisch
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, 1440 Canal Street, Suite 2100, New Orleans, LA 70112, United States
| | - Joan B Rose
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States
| | - Tiong Gim Aw
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, 1440 Canal Street, Suite 2100, New Orleans, LA 70112, United States.
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5
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Price M, Tscharke B, Chappell A, Kah M, Sila-Nowicka K, Morris H, Ward D, Trowsdale S. Testing methods to estimate population size for wastewater treatment plants using census data: Implications for wastewater-based epidemiology. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 922:170974. [PMID: 38360313 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
In wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), wastewater loads are commonly reported as a per capita value. Census population counts are often used to obtain a population size to normalise wastewater loads. However, the methods used to calculate the population size of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) from census data are rarely reported in the WBE literature. This is problematic because the geographical extents of wastewater catchments and census area units rarely align perfectly with each other and exist at different spatial scales. This complicates efforts to estimate the number of people serviced by WWTPs in these census area units. This study compared four geospatial methods to combine wastewater catchment areas and census area units to calculate the census population size of wastewater treatment plants. These methods were applied nationally to WWTPs across New Zealand. Population estimates varied by up to 73 % between the methods, which could skew comparisons of per capita wastewater loads between sites. Variability in population estimates (relative standard deviation, RSD) was significantly higher in smaller catchments (rs = -0.727, P < .001), highlighting the importance of method selection in smaller sites. Census population estimates were broadly similar to those provided by wastewater operators, but significant variation was observed for some sites (ranging from 42 % lower to 78 % higher, RSD = 262 %). We present a widely applicable method to calculate population size from census, which involves disaggregating census area units by individual properties. The results reinforce the need for transparent reporting to maintain confidence in the comparison of WBE across sites and studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mackay Price
- School of Environment, University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand.
| | - Ben Tscharke
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Queensland 4102, Australia
| | - Andrew Chappell
- Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd., 27 Creyke Road, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand
| | - Melanie Kah
- School of Environment, University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - Katarzyna Sila-Nowicka
- School of Environment, University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - Helen Morris
- Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd., 27 Creyke Road, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand
| | - Daniel Ward
- Environment Canterbury, 200 Tuam Street, Christchurch 8011, New Zealand
| | - Sam Trowsdale
- School of Environment, University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
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6
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Inson JGM, Malla B, Amalin DM, Carvajal TM, Enriquez MLD, Hirai S, Raya S, Rahmani AF, Angga MS, Sthapit N, Shrestha S, Ruti AA, Takeda T, Kitajima M, Alam ZF, Haramoto E. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 and Omicron variant RNA in wastewater samples from Manila, Philippines. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 919:170921. [PMID: 38350577 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 02/10/2024] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
Manila, a highly urbanized city, is listed as one of the top cities with the highest recorded number of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases in the Philippines. This study aimed to detect and quantify the RNA of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and the Omicron variant in 51 wastewater samples collected from three locations in Manila, namely Estero de Santa Clara, Estero de Pandacan, which are open drainages, and a sewage treatment plant (STP) at De La Salle University-Manila, between July 2022 and February 2023. Using one-step reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction, SARS-CoV-2 and Omicron variant RNA were detected in 78 % (40/51; 4.9 ± 0.5 log10 copies/L) and 60 % (24/40; 4.4 ± 0.3 log10 copies/L) of wastewater samples collected from all sampling sites, respectively. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected frequently at Estero de Santa Clara (88 %, 15/17); its highest concentration was at the STP (6.3 log10 copies/L). The Omicron variant RNA was present in the samples collected (4.4 ± 0.3 log10 copies/L) from all sampling sites, with the highest concentration at the STP (4.9 log10 copies/L). Regardless of normalization, using concentrations of pepper mild mottle virus RNA, SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations exhibited the highest positive correlation with COVID-19 reported cases in Manila 5 days after the clinical report. These findings revealed that wastewater-based epidemiology may aid in identifying and monitoring of the presence of pathogens in open drainages and STPs in the Philippines. This paper provides the first documentation on SARS-CoV-2 and the Omicron variant in wastewater from Manila.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessamine Gail M Inson
- Department of Biology, De La Salle University, Manila 1004, Philippines; Environmental Biomonitoring Research Unit, Center for Natural Sciences and Environmental Research, De La Salle University, Manila 1004, Philippines.
| | - Bikash Malla
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan
| | - Divina M Amalin
- Department of Biology, De La Salle University, Manila 1004, Philippines; Biological Control Research Unit, Center for Natural Sciences and Environmental Research, De La Salle University, Manila 1004, Philippines.
| | - Thaddeus M Carvajal
- Department of Biology, De La Salle University, Manila 1004, Philippines; Biological Control Research Unit, Center for Natural Sciences and Environmental Research, De La Salle University, Manila 1004, Philippines.
| | | | - Soichiro Hirai
- Department of Engineering, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan.
| | - Sunayana Raya
- Department of Engineering, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan
| | - Aulia Fajar Rahmani
- Department of Engineering, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan
| | - Made Sandhyana Angga
- Department of Engineering, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan
| | - Niva Sthapit
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan
| | - Sadhana Shrestha
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan
| | - Annisa Andarini Ruti
- Department of Engineering, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan
| | - Tomoko Takeda
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan.
| | - Masaaki Kitajima
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan.
| | - Zeba F Alam
- Department of Biology, De La Salle University, Manila 1004, Philippines; Environmental Biomonitoring Research Unit, Center for Natural Sciences and Environmental Research, De La Salle University, Manila 1004, Philippines.
| | - Eiji Haramoto
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan.
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