Health Risks Associated with Informal Electronic Waste Recycling in Africa: A Systematic Review

A review on e-waste contamination, toxicity, and sustainable clean-up approaches for its management

Ecosystems and human health are being negatively impacted by the growing problem of electrical waste, especially in developing countries. E-waste poses a significant risk to ecological systems because it can release a variety of hazardous substances into the environment, containing polybrominated diphenyl ethers and heavy metals, brominated flame retardants, polychlorinated dibenzofurans and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and dioxins. This review article provides a critical assessment of the toxicological consequences of e-waste on ecosystems and human health and data analyses from scientific journals and grey literature on metals, BFRs, PBDEs, PCDFs, and PAHs in several environmental compartments of commercial significance in informal electronic trash recycling. The currently available techniques and tools employed for treating e-waste are sustainable techniques such as bioremediation, chemical leaching, biological leaching, and pyrometallurgy have been also discussed along with the necessity of implementing strong legislation to address the issue of unregulated exports of electronic trash in recycling practices. Despite the ongoing hurdles, implementing environmentally sustainable recycling methods have the potential to address the detrimental impacts of e-waste and foster positive economic development.

Environmental health science research: opportunities and challenges for some developing countries in Africa

Due to ongoing developmental projects, there is a need for regular monitoring of the impact of pollutants on the environment. This review documented the challenges and opportunities in the field of environmental health sciences in some African countries. A systematic review was used to investigate opportunities and challenges in the field of environmental health science in Africa by examining published work with a specific focus on Africa. The reports showed that funding and infrastructure as the major problems. The study also highlighted recruiting study participants, retention, and compensation as a bane in the field in Africa. The absence of modern equipment also hinders research. The review, however, noted research collaboration from the region including studies on emerging pollutants such as pharmaceuticals, per and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), and microplastic (MPs) as great opportunities. The study concluded that collaboration with other continents, exchange programs and improved governmental interventions may help.

Lead exposure by E-waste disposal and recycling in Agbogbloshie, Ghana

BACKGROUND

Agbogbloshie in Ghana is the world's biggest dumpsite for the informal recycling of electronic waste (e-waste). E-waste is dismantled by rudimentary methods without personal or environmental protection. Workers and occupants are exposed to lead. There are no data so far about the extent and the consequences. We therefore analyzed blood lead levels (BLL) and creatinine levels (CL).

METHODS

Full blood samples and basic data (i.e. age, job, length of stay) were collected from dumpsite volunteers. BLL were measured by atomic absorption spectrometry; CL were assessed using the standard clinical laboratory procedures of Aachen Technical University. European BLL reference values were used as Ghana lacks its own. Statistical analysis was by non-parametric tests (Mann-Whitney U test), with p < 0.05.

RESULTS

Participants of both sexes (n = 327; 12-68 years; median age 23 years) were assessed. Most workers were aged <30 years. The collective's BLL was in pathological range for 77.7%; 14% had a BLL >10.0 μg/dl with symptoms consistent with high lead exposure including severe (6.5%) and intermediate (39%) renal disorder. BLL above 15.0 μg/dl were found in 5.9% of all workers which is the German threshold for those working with lead. Elevated CL in a pathological range were found in 254 participants. This is problematic as 75% of the lead entering the body is excreted via urine.

CONCLUSION

Most of our volunteers had pathological BLL and CL. Preventive strategies are necessary to reduce health risks, particularly for vulnerable populations (i.e. children, pregnant women).

Assessing the combined effect of multiple metal exposures on pregnancy and birth outcomes: Methodological insights in systematic review research

This systematic review focused on pregnant women and aimed to evaluate how exposure to multiple metals impacts their pregnancy and birth outcomes. Previous research has predominantly focused on the effects of individual metal exposures on adverse birth outcomes. However, it is crucial to recognize that real-world scenarios often involve simultaneous exposure to multiple pollutants. Recent studies have emphasized the significance of considering exposure to mixtures of metals to gain a more comprehensive understanding of their collective health impacts. This article outlines the essential steps taken during the systematic review process, which involved synthesizing existing evidence and evaluating the strength and consistency of the relationship between metal mixtures and pregnancy and birth outcomes.

Bridging the knowledge gap! Health outcomes in informal e-waste workers

BACKGROUND

Although several studies analyzed the impact of e-waste recycling on human health, most publications did not differ between e-waste workers and bystanders, such as residents. This could lead to an underestimation of health effects in workers. In addition, frequently reported surrogate findings do not properly reflect clinical significant health outcomes. The aim of this review was to analyze the direct health effects of informal e-waste recycling in informal e-waste workers.

METHODS

According to PRISMA guidelines, we systematically searched 3 databases (Embase®, PubMed®, Web of Science) for studies from low- and middle-income countries published in German or English between 1980 and 1 November 2021. Of the 2613 hits, 26 studies (cross-sectional, longitudinal and case-control studies) met the specified criteria and were included. We categorized the results into hormonal, respiratory, renal, cardiovascular, musculoskeletal health and general symptoms in informal e-waste workers.

RESULTS

Exposure to e-waste was associated with altered lipid metabolism, thyroid hormonal imbalances, impaired fertility, renal dysfunction, increased prevalence of respiratory symptoms, asthma, cardiac arrhythmias, hypertension, musculoskeletal pain, injuries in up to 89% and skin disorders in up to 87.5-100% of e-waste workers.

CONCLUSION

Due to inconsistent findings, weak associations or poor study quality, it has rarely been possible to establish a causal relationship between informal e-waste work and health effects, except for injuries or skin conditions. Besides high-quality studies, a collective national and international political focus on e-waste disposal is needed.

Environmental Injustice and Electronic Waste in Ghana: Challenges and Recommendations

Electronic waste (e-waste) or discarded electronic devices that are unwanted, not working, or have reached their end of life pose significant threats to human and environmental health. This is a major concern in Africa, where the majority of e-waste is discarded. In the year 2021, an estimated 57.4 million metric tons of e-waste were generated worldwide. Globally, COVID-19 lockdowns have contributed to increased e-waste generation. Although Africa generates the least of this waste, the continent has been the dumping ground for e-waste from the developed world. The flow of hazardous waste from the prosperous 'Global North' to the impoverished 'Global South' is termed "toxic colonialism". Agbogbloshie, Ghana, an e-waste hub where about 39% of e-waste was treated, was listed among the top 10 most polluted places in the world. The discard of e-waste in Ghana presents an issue of environmental injustice, defined as the disproportionate exposure of communities of color and low-income communities to pollution, its associated health and environmental effects, and the unequal environmental protection provided through policies. Despite the economic benefits of e-waste, many civilians (low-income earners, settlers, children, and people with minimal education) are exposed to negative health effects due to poverty, lack of education, and weak regulations. We critically examine the existing literature to gather empirical information on e-waste and environmental injustice. Comprehensive policies and regulations are needed to manage e-waste locally and globally.