G protein-coupled receptors: extranuclear mediators for the non-genomic actions of steroids

Analysis of androgen receptor expression and activity in the mouse brain

Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) is the core treatment for advanced prostate cancer (PCa), with a proven survival benefit. ADT lowers circulating testosterone levels throughout the body, but with it comes a variety of reported side effects including fatigue, muscle wastage, weight gain, hot flushes and importantly cognitive impairment, depression, and mood swings. Testosterone has a key role in brain masculinization, but its direct effects are relatively poorly understood, due both to the brain's extreme complexity and the fact that some of testosterone activities are driven via local conversion to oestrogen, especially during embryonic development. The exact roles, function, and location of the androgen receptor (AR) in the adult male brain are still being discovered, and therefore the cognitive side effects of ADT may be unrecognized or under-reported. The age of onset of several neurological diseases overlap with PCa, therefore, there is a need to separate ADT side effects from such co-morbidities. Here we analysed the activity and expression level of the AR in the adult mouse brain, using an ARE-Luc reporter mouse and immunohistochemical staining for AR in all the key brain regions via coronal slices. We further analysed our data by comparing to the Allen Mouse Brain Atlas. AR-driven luciferase activity and distinct nuclear staining for AR were seen in several key brain areas including the thalamus, hypothalamus, olfactory bulb, cerebral cortex, Purkinje cells of the cerebellum and the hindbrain. We describe and discuss the potential role of AR in these areas, to inform and enable extrapolation to potential side effects of ADT in humans.

Roles of estrogen receptors during sexual reversal in Pelodiscus sinensis

BACKGROUND

The Chinese soft-shelled turtle, Pelodiscus sinensis, exhibits distinct sexual dimorphism, with the males growing faster and larger than the females. During breeding, all-male offspring can be obtained using 17β-estradiol (E2). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying E2-induced sexual reversal have not yet been elucidated. Previous studies have investigated the molecular sequence and expression characteristics of estrogen receptors (ERs).

METHODS AND RESULTS

In this study, primary liver cells and embryos of P. sinensis were treated with ER agonists or inhibitors. Cell incubation experiments revealed that nuclear ERs (nERs) were the main pathway for the transmission of estrogen signals. Our results showed that ERα agonist (ERα-ag) upregulated the expression of Rspo1, whereas ERα inhibitor (ERα-Inh) downregulated its expression. The expression of Dmrt1 was enhanced after ERα-Inh + G-ag treatment, indicating that the regulation of male genes may not act through a single estrogen receptor, but a combination of ERs. In embryos, only the ERα-ag remarkably promoted the expression levels of Rspo1, Wnt4, and β-catenin, whereas the ERα-Inh had a suppressive effect. Additionally, Dmrt1, Amh, and Sox9 expression levels were downregulated after ERβ inhibitor (ERβ-Inh) treatment. GPER agonist (G-ag) has a significant promotion effect on Rspo1, Wnt4, and β-catenin, while the inhibitor G-Inh does not affect male-related genes.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, these results suggest that ERs play different roles during sexual reversal in P. sinensis and ERα may be the main carrier of estrogen-induced sexual reversal in P. sinensis. Further studies need to be performed to analyze the mechanism of ER action.

Non-genomic actions of steroid hormones on the contractility of non-vascular smooth muscles

Steroid hormones play an important role in physiological processes. The classical pathway of steroid actions is mediated by nuclear receptors, which regulate genes to modify biological processes. Non-genomic pathways of steroid actions are also known, mediated by cell membrane-located seven transmembrane domain receptors. Sex steroids and glucocorticoids have several membrane receptors already identified to mediate their rapid actions. However, mineralocorticoids have no identified membrane receptors, although their rapid actions are also measurable. In non-vascular smooth muscles (bronchial, uterine, gastrointestinal, and urinary), the rapid actions of steroids are mediated through the modification of the intracellular Ca2+ level by various Ca-channels and the cAMP and IP3 system. The non-genomic action can be converted into a genomic one, suggesting that these distinct pathways may interconnect, resulting in convergence between them. Sex steroids mostly relax all the non-vascular smooth muscles, except androgens and progesterone, which contract colonic and urinary bladder smooth muscles, respectively. Corticosteroids also induce relaxation in bronchial and uterine tissues, but their actions on gastrointestinal and urinary bladder smooth muscles have not been investigated yet. Bile acids also contribute to the smooth muscle contractility. Although the therapeutic application of the rapid effects of steroid hormones and their analogues for smooth muscle contractility disorders seems remote, the actions and mechanism discovered so far are promising. Further research is needed to expand our knowledge in this field by using existing experience. One of the greatest challenges is to separate genomic and non-genomic effects, but model molecules are available to start this line of research.

New insights into sperm physiology regulation: Enlightenment from G-protein-coupled receptors

BACKGROUND

G-protein-coupled receptors are critical in many physiological and pathological processes in various organs. Serving as the control panel for sensing extracellular stimuli, G-protein-coupled receptors recognise various ligands, including light, temperature, odours, pheromones, hormones, neurotransmitters, chemokines, etc. Most recently, G-protein-coupled receptors residing in spermatozoa have been found to be indispensable for sperm function.

OBJECTIVE

Here, we have summarised cutting-edge findings on the functional mechanisms of G-protein-coupled receptors that are known to be associated with sperm functions and the activation of their downstream effectors, providing new insights into the roles of G-protein-coupled receptors in sperm physiology.

RESULTS

Emerging studies hint that alterations in G-protein-coupled receptors could affect sperm function, implicating their role in fertility, but solid evidence needs to be continuing excavated with various means. Several members of the G-protein-coupled receptor superfamily, including olfactory receptors, opsins, orphan G-protein-coupled receptors, CXC chemokine receptor 4, CC chemokine receptor 5 and CC chemokine receptor 6 as well as their downstream effector β-arrestins, etc., were suggested to be essential for sperm motility, capacitation, thermotaxis, chemotaxis, Ca2+ influx through CatSper channel and fertilisation capacity.

CONCLUSION

The present review provides a comprehensive overview of studies describing G-protein-coupled receptors and their potential action in sperm function. We also present a critical discussion of these issues, and a possible framework for future investigations on the diverse ligands, biological functions and cell signalling of G-protein-coupled receptors in spermatozoa. Here, the G-protein-coupled receptors and their related G proteins that specifically were identified in spermatozoa were summarised, and provided references valuable for further illumination, despite the evidence that is not overwhelming in most cases.

Short-term exposure to dexamethasone at environmentally relevant concentrations impairs embryonic development in Cyprinus carpio: Bioconcentration and alteration of oxidative stress-related gene expression patterns

In recent years and as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic, the consumption of dexamethasone (DXE) has increased. This favors that this corticosteroid is highly released in aquatic environments, generating deleterious effects in aquatic organisms. The information on the toxic effects of DXE in the environment is still limited. Thus, the objective of this work was to determine whether DXE at short-term exposure can cause alterations to embryonic development and alteration of oxidative stress-related gene expression patterns in Cyprinus carpio. For this purpose, common carp embryos (2 hpf) were exposed to realistic concentrations of DXE until 96 hpf. Alterations to embryonic development were evaluated at 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 hpf. In addition, oxidative stress in carp embryos at 72 and 96 hpf was evaluated by cellular oxidation biomarkers (lipoperoxidation level, hydroperoxide and carbonyl protein content) and antioxidant enzymes activities (superoxide dismutase and catalase). Oxidative stress-related gene expression (sod, cat and gpx1) was also evaluated. Our results showed that DXE concentrations above 35 ng/L are capable of producing alterations to embryonic development in 50 % of the embryo population. Furthermore, DXE was able to induce alterations such as scoliosis, hypopigmentation, craniofacial malformations, pericardial edema and growth retardation, leading to the death of half of the population at 50 ng/L of DXE. Concerning oxidative stress, the results demonstrated that DXE induce oxidative damage on the embryos of C. carpio. In conclusion, DXE is capable of altering embryonic development and generating oxidative stress in common carp C. carpio.

Allosteric Modulation of Muscarinic Receptors by Cholesterol, Neurosteroids and Neuroactive Steroids

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors are membrane receptors involved in many physiological processes. Malfunction of muscarinic signaling is a cause of various internal diseases, as well as psychiatric and neurologic conditions. Cholesterol, neurosteroids, neuroactive steroids, and steroid hormones are molecules of steroid origin that, besides having well-known genomic effects, also modulate membrane proteins including muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Here, we review current knowledge on the allosteric modulation of muscarinic receptors by these steroids. We give a perspective on the research on the non-genomic effects of steroidal compounds on muscarinic receptors and drug development, with an aim to ultimately exploit such knowledge.

Effects of membrane androgen receptor binding on synaptic plasticity in primary hippocampal neurons

Androgens play an important role in the regulation of hippocampal synaptic plasticity. While the classical molecular mechanism of androgen's genomic activity is their binding to intracellular androgen receptors (iARs), they can also induce rapid non-genomic effects through specific membrane androgen receptors (mARs). In this study, we aimed to localize and characterize these mARs in primary rat hippocampal neurons. Specific punctate fluorescent signals on the cell surface, observed by testosterone-fetal bovine serum albumin conjugated fluorescein isothiocyanate (T-BSA-FITC), indicated the presence of mARs in hippocampal neurons. T-BSA-FITC binding to the cell membrane was incompletely blocked by the iAR-antagonist flutamide, and mAR binding site was competitively bound by free testosterone (T). Most neurons expressing androgen membrane binding sites are glutamatergic (excitatory), although several are γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic (inhibitory). Confocal microscopy and live-cell imaging techniques were used to observe the real-time rapid effects of androgens on hippocampal dendritic spine morphology. Immunofluorescence cell staining was used to observe their effects on the postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95) and synapsin (SYN) synaptic markers. While androgens did not cause a short-term increase in dendritic spine density of rat primary hippocampal neurons, they promoted the transformation of dendritic spines from thin to mushroom, promoted dendritic spine maturation, increased dendritic spine surface area, and rapidly increased PSD95 and SYN expression in the primary hippocampal neurons. Hippocampal synaptosomes were prepared using the Optiprep and Percoll density gradient two-step centrifuge methods, and the gene expression profiles of the synaptosomes and hippocampus were compared using a gene chip; PSD95 mRNA expression was detected by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Several mRNAs were detected at the synaptic site, including PSD95. Finally, the Venus-PSD95 plasmid was constructed and transfected into HT22 cells, which is a mouse hippocampal neuronal cell line. The real-time effect of androgen on synaptic protein PSD95 was observed by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching experiments, which involved the translation process of PSD95 mRNA. In conclusion, our findings increased our understanding of how androgens exert the neuroprotective mechanisms on synaptic plasticity.

Does Patient-Applied Testosterone Replacement Therapy Pose Risk for Blood Pressure Elevation? Circadian Medicine Perspectives

We reviewed medication package inserts, US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) reports, and journal publications concerning the 10 nonbiosimilar patient-applied (PA) testosterone (T) replacement therapies (TRTs) for intraday serum T patterning and blood pressure (BP) effects. Blood T concentration is circadian rhythmic in young adult eugonadal males, being highest around awakening and lowest before bedtime. T level and 24 h variation are blunted in primary and secondary hypogonadism. Utilized as recommended, most PA-TRTs achieve nonphysiologic T 24 h patterning. Only Androderm^® , an evening PA transdermal patch, closely replicates the normal T circadian rhythmicity. Accurate determination of risk for BP elevation and hypertension (HTN) by PA-TRTs is difficult due to limitations of office BP measurements (OBPM) and suboptimal methods and endpoints of ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM). OBPM is subject to "White Coat" pressor effect resulting in unrepresentative BP values plus masked normotension and masked HTN, causing misclassification of approximately 45% of trial participants, both before and during treatment. Change in guideline-recommended diagnostic thresholds over time causes misclassification of an additional approximately 15% of participants. ABPM is improperly incorporated into TRT safety trials. It is done for 24 h rather than preferred 48 h; BP is oversampled during wakefulness, biasing derived 24 h mean values; 24 h mean systolic and diastolic BP (SBP, DBP) are inappropriate primary outcomes, because of not being best predictors of risk for major acute cardiovascular events (MACE); "daytime" and "nighttime" BP means referenced to clock time are reported rather than biologically relevant wake-time and sleep-time BP means; most importantly, asleep SBP mean and dipping, strongest predictors of MACE, are disregarded. © 2022 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 12: 1-20, 2022.

PAQR6 Upregulation Is Associated with AR Signaling and Unfavorite Prognosis in Prostate Cancers

Progesterone-induced rapid non-genomic signaling events have been confirmed through several membrane progesterone receptors (mPR). Some mPRs were reported to correlate with cancer progression and patient prognosis. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of all progesterone receptor (PGR)-related genes in prostate cancer tissues and examined the correlations of their expression levels with disease progression and patient survival outcomes. We utilized multiple RNA-seq and cDNA microarray datasets to analyze gene expression profiles and performed logistics aggression and Kaplan-Meier survival analysis after stratifying patients based on tumor stages and Gleason scores. We also used NCBI GEO datasets to examine gene expression patterns in individual cell types of the prostate gland and to determine the androgen-induced alteration of gene expression. Spearman coefficient analysis was conducted to access the correlation of target gene expression with treatment responses and disease progression status. The classic PGR was mainly expressed in stromal cells and progestin and adipoQ receptor (PAQR) genes were the predominant genes in prostate epithelial cells. Progesterone receptor membrane component-1 (PGRMC1) was significantly higher than PGRMC2 in all prostate cell types. In prostate cancer tissues, PAQR6 expression was significantly upregulated, while all other genes were largely downregulated compared to normal prostate tissues. Although both PAQR6 upregulation and PAQR5 downregulation were significantly correlated with tumor pathological stages, only PAQR6 upregulation was associated with Gleason score, free-prostate-specific antigen (fPSA)/total-PSA (tPSA) ratio, and patient overall survival outcomes. In addition, PAQR6 upregulation and PGR/PGRMC1 downregulation were significantly associated with a quick relapse. Conversely, in neuroendocrinal prostate cancer (NEPC) tissues, PAQR6 expression was significantly lower, but PAQR7/8 expression was higher than castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) tissues. PAQR8 expression was positively correlated with androgen receptor (AR) score and AR-V7 expression levels but inversely correlated with NEPC score in metastatic CRPC tumors. This study provides detailed expression profiles of membrane progesterone receptor genes in primary cancer, CRPC, and NEPC tissues. PAQR6 upregulation in primary cancer tissues is a novel prognostic biomarker for disease progression, overall, and progression-free survival in prostate cancers. PAQR8 expression in CRPC tissues is a biomarker for AR activation.

miRNome and Functional Network Analysis of PGRMC1 Regulated miRNA Target Genes Identify Pathways and Biological Functions Associated With Triple Negative Breast Cancer

Background

Increased expression of the progesterone receptor membrane component 1, a heme and progesterone binding protein, is frequently found in triple negative breast cancer tissue. The basis for the expression of PGRMC1 and its regulation on cellular signaling mechanisms remain largely unknown. Therefore, we aim to study microRNAs that target selective genes and mechanisms that are regulated by PGRMC1 in TNBCs.

Methods

To identify altered miRNAs, whole human miRNome profiling was performed following AG-205 treatment and PGRMC1 silencing. Network analysis identified miRNA target genes while KEGG, REACTOME and Gene ontology were used to explore altered signaling pathways, biological processes, and molecular functions.

Results

KEGG term pathway analysis revealed that upregulated miRNAs target specific genes that are involved in signaling pathways that play a major role in carcinogenesis. While multiple downregulated miRNAs are known oncogenes and have been previously demonstrated to be overexpressed in a variety of cancers. Overlapping miRNA target genes associated with KEGG term pathways were identified and overexpression/amplification of these genes was observed in invasive breast carcinoma tissue from TCGA. Further, the top two genes (CCND1 and YWHAZ) which are highly genetically altered are also associated with poorer overall survival.

Conclusions

Thus, our data demonstrates that therapeutic targeting of PGRMC1 in aggressive breast cancers leads to the activation of miRNAs that target overexpressed genes and deactivation of miRNAs that have oncogenic potential.

Crosstalk between progesterone receptor membrane component 1 and estrogen receptor α promotes breast cancer cell proliferation

Progesterone (P4) and estradiol (E2) have been shown to stimulate and regulate breast cancer proliferation via classical nuclear receptor signaling through progesterone receptor (PR) and estrogen receptor α (ERα), respectively. However, the basis of communication between PR/ERα and membrane receptors remains largely unknown. Here, we aim to identify classical and nonclassical endocrine signaling mechanisms that can alter cell proliferation through a possible crosstalk between PR, ERα, and progesterone receptor membrane component 1 (PGRMC1), a membrane receptor frequently observed in breast cancer cells. While P4 and E2 treatment increased cell proliferation of ER+/PR+/PGRMC1 overexpressing breast cancer cells, silencing ERα and PR or treatment with selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) tamoxifen, or (PR-antagonist) RU-486 decreased cell proliferation. All four treatments rapidly altered PGRMC1 mRNA levels and protein expression. Furthermore, P4 and E2 treatments rapidly activated EGFR a known interacting partner of PGRMC1 and its downstream signaling. Interestingly, downregulation of ERα by tamoxifen and ERα silencing decreased the expression levels of PGRMC1 with no repercussions to PR expression. Strikingly PGRMC1 silencing decreased ERα expression irrespective of PR. METABRIC and TCGA datasets further demonstrated that PGRMC1 expression was comparable to that of ERα in Luminal A and B breast cancers. Targeting of PR, ERα, and PGRMC1 confirmed that a crosstalk between classical and nonclassical signaling mechanisms exists in ER+ breast cancer cells that could enhance the growth of ER+/PR+/PGRMC1 overexpressing tumors.

Ion Transport Modulators Differentially Modulate Inflammatory Responses in THP-1-Derived Macrophages

Ion transport modulators are most commonly used to treat various noncommunicable diseases including diabetes and hypertension. They are also known to bind to receptors on various immune cells, but the immunomodulatory properties of most ion transport modulators have not been fully elucidated. We assessed the effects of thirteen FDA-approved ion transport modulators, namely, ambroxol HCl, amiloride HCl, diazoxide, digoxin, furosemide, hydrochlorothiazide, metformin, omeprazole, pantoprazole, phenytoin, verapamil, drug X, and drug Y on superoxide production, nitric oxide production, and cytokine expression by THP-1-derived macrophages that had been stimulated with ethanol-inactivated Mycobacterium bovis BCG. Ambroxol HCl, diazoxide, digoxin, furosemide, hydrochlorothiazide, metformin, pantoprazole, phenytoin, verapamil, and drug Y had an inhibitory effect on nitric oxide production, while all the test drugs had an inhibitory effect on superoxide production. Amiloride HCl, diazoxide, digoxin, furosemide, phenytoin, verapamil, drug X, and drug Y enhanced the expression of IL-1β and TNF-α. Unlike most immunomodulatory compounds currently in clinical use, most of the test drugs inhibited some inflammatory processes while promoting others. Ion pumps and ion channels could therefore serve as targets for more selective immunomodulatory agents which do not cause overt immunosuppression.

Binding of Androgen- and Estrogen-Like Flavonoids to Their Cognate (Non)Nuclear Receptors: A Comparison by Computational Prediction

Flavonoids are plant bioactives that are recognized as hormone-like polyphenols because of their similarity to the endogenous sex steroids 17β-estradiol and testosterone, and to their estrogen- and androgen-like activity. Most efforts to verify flavonoid binding to nuclear receptors (NRs) and explain their action have been focused on ERα, while less attention has been paid to other nuclear and non-nuclear membrane androgen and estrogen receptors. Here, we investigate six flavonoids (apigenin, genistein, luteolin, naringenin, quercetin, and resveratrol) that are widely present in fruits and vegetables, and often used as replacement therapy in menopause. We performed comparative computational docking simulations to predict their capability of binding nuclear receptors ERα, ERβ, ERRβ, ERRγ, androgen receptor (AR), and its variant ART877A and membrane receptors for androgens, i.e., ZIP9, GPRC6A, OXER1, TRPM8, and estrogens, i.e., G Protein-Coupled Estrogen Receptor (GPER). In agreement with data reported in literature, our results suggest that these flavonoids show a relevant degree of complementarity with both estrogen and androgen NR binding sites, likely triggering genomic-mediated effects. It is noteworthy that reliable protein-ligand complexes and estimated interaction energies were also obtained for some suggested estrogen and androgen membrane receptors, indicating that flavonoids could also exert non-genomic actions. Further investigations are needed to clarify flavonoid multiple genomic and non-genomic effects. Caution in their administration could be necessary, until the safe assumption of these natural molecules that are largely present in food is assured.

Remodeling of Zn2+ homeostasis upon differentiation of mammary epithelial cells

Zinc is the second most abundant transition metal in humans and an essential nutrient required for growth and development of newborns. During lactation, mammary epithelial cells differentiate into a secretory phenotype, uptake zinc from blood circulation, and export it into mother's milk. At the cellular level, many zinc-dependent cellular processes, such as transcription, metabolism of nutrients, and proliferation are involved in the differentiation of mammary epithelial cells. Using mouse mammary epithelial cells as a model system, we investigated the remodeling of zinc homeostasis during differentiation induced by treatment with the lactogenic hormones cortisol and prolactin. RNA-Seq at different stages of differentiation revealed changes in global gene expression, including genes encoding zinc-dependent proteins and regulators of zinc homeostasis. Increases in mRNA levels of three zinc homeostasis genes, Slc39a14 (ZIP14) and metallothioneins (MTs) I and II were induced by cortisol but not by prolactin. The cortisol-induced increase was partially mediated by the nuclear glucocorticoid receptor signaling pathway. An increase in the cytosolic labile Zn2+ pool was also detected in lactating mammary cells, consistent with upregulation of MTs. We found that the zinc transporter ZIP14 was important for the expression of a major milk protein, whey acid protein (WAP), as knockdown of ZIP14 dramatically decreased WAP mRNA levels. In summary, our study demonstrated remodeling of zinc homeostasis upon differentiation of mammary epithelial cells resulting in changes in cytosolic Zn2+ and differential expression of zinc homeostasis genes, and these changes are important for establishing the lactation phenotype.

Astrocytoma: A Hormone-Sensitive Tumor?

Astrocytomas and, in particular, their most severe form, glioblastoma, are the most aggressive primary brain tumors and those with the poorest vital prognosis. Standard treatment only slightly improves patient survival. Therefore, new therapies are needed. Very few risk factors have been clearly identified but many epidemiological studies have reported a higher incidence in men than women with a sex ratio of 1:4. Based on these observations, it has been proposed that the neurosteroids and especially the estrogens found in higher concentrations in women's brains could, in part, explain this difference. Estrogens can bind to nuclear or membrane receptors and potentially stimulate many different interconnected signaling pathways. The study of these receptors is even more complex since many isoforms are produced from each estrogen receptor encoding gene through alternative promoter usage or splicing, with each of them potentially having a specific role in the cell. The purpose of this review is to discuss recent data supporting the involvement of steroids during gliomagenesis and to focus on the potential neuroprotective role as well as the mechanisms of action of estrogens in gliomas.

Association of circulating Progesterone Receptor Membrane Component-1 (PGRMC1) with breast tumor characteristics and comparison with known tumor markers

OBJECTIVES

Progesterone receptor membrane component-1 (PGRMC1) expressed in breast cancer tissue has been suggested to predict a worse prognosis. The aim of this study was to assess for the first time if blood concentrations of PGRMC1 are also associated with receptor status, tumor diameter, grading, and lymphatic status. The second aim was comparison with known tumor markers.

METHODS

A total of 372 women, including 278 patients with invasive breast cancer, 65 with benign breast disease, and 29 healthy women (control), were recruited. PGRMC1 blood concentrations were measured by a recently developed enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay, and were correlated to predictive tumor characteristics and compared with serum carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), CA125, and CA153.

RESULTS

PGRMC1 levels in the cancer group were significantly higher than in the control and benign group and increased with higher cancer stages (P < 0.05). PGRMC1 concentrations in the estrogen receptor (ER)+/progesterone receptor (PR)+ group were higher than in the ER-/PR- group, related to larger tumor diameter and the presence of lymph node metastasis (P < 0.05). Multivariable linear regression analysis was used to control the confounding factors. Tumor diameter, lymphatic metastasis, and ER (but not PR) were positively associated with PGRMC1 (P < 0.05). The receiver-operating characteristic curve (ROC) analysis was used to assess area under the curve (AUC). AUC was 87.9% for stages III+IV and 80.8% for stages I+II (P < 0.01). ROC did not find significant effects on AUC for CA125, only significant for CEA and CA153 for stages III+IV.

CONCLUSION

As PGRMC1 levels are positively associated with breast tumor characteristics known to predict a worse diagnosis, PGRMC1 may be valuable as a new tumor marker, and superior to CEA, C125, and CA153. Because of the positive association with ER-expression, PGRMC1 may interact with this receptor.

Metabolite Sensing GPCRs: Promising Therapeutic Targets for Cancer Treatment?

G-protein-coupled receptors constitute the most diverse and largest receptor family in the human genome, with approximately 800 different members identified. Given the well-known metabolic alterations in cancer development, we will focus specifically in the 19 G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which can be selectively activated by metabolites. These metabolite sensing GPCRs control crucial processes, such as cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, and survival after their activation. In the present review, we will describe the main functions of these metabolite sensing GPCRs and shed light on the benefits of their potential use as possible pharmacological targets for cancer treatment.

α1-Adrenergic Receptors in Neurotransmission, Synaptic Plasticity, and Cognition

α₁-adrenergic receptors are G-Protein Coupled Receptors that are involved in neurotransmission and regulate the sympathetic nervous system through binding and activating the neurotransmitter, norepinephrine, and the neurohormone, epinephrine. There are three α₁-adrenergic receptor subtypes (α_1A, α_1B, α_1D) that are known to play various roles in neurotransmission and cognition. They are related to two other adrenergic receptor families that also bind norepinephrine and epinephrine, the β- and α₂-, each with three subtypes (β₁, β₂, β₃, α_2A, α_2B, α_2C). Previous studies assessing the roles of α₁-adrenergic receptors in neurotransmission and cognition have been inconsistent. This was due to the use of poorly-selective ligands and many of these studies were published before the characterization of the cloned receptor subtypes and the subsequent development of animal models. With the availability of more-selective ligands and the development of animal models, a clearer picture of their role in cognition and neurotransmission can be assessed. In this review, we highlight the significant role that the α₁-adrenergic receptor plays in regulating synaptic efficacy, both short and long-term synaptic plasticity, and its regulation of different types of memory. We will also present evidence that the α₁-adrenergic receptors, and particularly the α_1A-adrenergic receptor subtype, are a potentially good target to treat a wide variety of neurological conditions with diminished cognition.

Ion Channel Regulation by Sex Steroid Hormones and Vitamin D in Cancer: A Potential Opportunity for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy

Many ion channels are involved in tumor development, promoting cancer cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and survival. Accordingly, some of them have been suggested as tumor markers and novel targets for cancer therapy. Some sex steroid hormones (SSH), including estrogens and androgens, favor cancer progression. Meanwhile, other steroid hormones like vitamin D may have anticancer properties. SSH and vitamin D modulate the expression of a number of ion channels in cancer cells from hormone-sensitive tissues, including breast, ovary, prostate, and cervix. Moreover, rapid effects of SSH may be mediated by their direct action on membrane ion channels. Here, we reviewed the SSH and vitamin D regulation of ion channels involved in cancer, and analyzed the potential molecular pathways implicated. In addition, we described the potential clinical use of ion channels in cancer diagnosis and therapy, taking advantage of their regulation by SSH and vitamin D. Since SSH are considered risk factors for different types of cancer, and ion channels play important roles in tumor progression, the regulation of ion channels by SSH and vitamin D may represent a potential opportunity for early cancer diagnosis and therapeutic approaches in SSH and vitamin D sensitive tumors.

Vascular mechanisms of testosterone: The non-genomic point of view

Testosterone (T) is the predominant endogenous androgen in the bloodstream. At the vascular level, T presents genomic and non-genomic effects, and both effects may overlap. The genomic actions assume that androgens can freely cross the plasma membrane of target cells and bind to nuclear androgen receptors, inducing gene transcription and protein synthesis. The non-genomic effects have a more rapid onset and may be related to the interaction with protein/receptor/ion channels of the plasma membrane. The key T effect at the vascular level is vasorelaxation, which is primarily due to its rapid effect. Thus, the main purpose of this review is to discuss the T non-genomic effects at the vascular level and the molecular pathways involved in its vasodilator effect observed in in vivo and in vitro studies. In this sense, the nuclear receptor activation, the influence of vascular endothelium and the activation or inhibition of ion channels (potassium and calcium channels, respectively) will be reviewed regarding all the data that corroborated or not. Moreover, this review also provides a brief update on the association of T with the risk factors for cardiovascular diseases, namely metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes mellitus, obesity, atherosclerosis, dyslipidaemia, and hypertension. In summary, in this paper we consider the non-genomic vascular mode of action of androgen in physiological conditions and the main risk factors for cardiovascular diseases.

Androgen Effects on the Adrenergic System of the Vascular, Airway, and Cardiac Myocytes and Their Relevance in Pathological Processes

INTRODUCTION

Androgen signaling comprises nongenomic and genomic pathways. Nongenomic actions are not related to the binding of the androgen receptor (AR) and occur rapidly. The genomic effects implicate the binding to a cytosolic AR, leading to protein synthesis. Both events are independent of each other. Genomic effects have been associated with different pathologies such as vascular ischemia, hypertension, asthma, and cardiovascular diseases. Catecholamines play a crucial role in regulating vascular smooth muscle (VSM), airway smooth muscle (ASM), and cardiac muscle (CM) function and tone.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this review is an updated analysis of the role of androgens in the adrenergic system of vascular, airway, and cardiac myocytes. Body. Testosterone (T) favors vasoconstriction, and its concentration fluctuation during life stages can affect the vascular tone and might contribute to the development of hypertension. In the VSM, T increases α1-adrenergic receptors (α ₁-ARs) and decreases adenylyl cyclase expression, favoring high blood pressure and hypertension. Androgens have also been associated with asthma. During puberty, girls are more susceptible to present asthma symptoms than boys because of the increment in the plasmatic concentrations of T in young men. In the ASM, β ₂-ARs are responsible for the bronchodilator effect, and T augments the expression of β ₂-ARs evoking an increase in the relaxing response to salbutamol. The levels of T are also associated with an increment in atherosclerosis and cardiovascular risk. In the CM, activation of α _1A-ARs and β ₂-ARs increases the ionotropic activity, leading to the development of contraction, and T upregulates the expression of both receptors and improves the myocardial performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Androgens play an essential role in the adrenergic system of vascular, airway, and cardiac myocytes, favoring either a state of health or disease. While the use of androgens as a therapeutic tool for treating asthma symptoms or heart disease is proposed, the vascular system is warmly affected.

Progesterone Application to the Rat Forehead Produces Corneal Antinociception

Purpose

Ocular pain and discomfort are the most defining symptoms of dry eye disease. We determined the ability of topical progesterone to affect corneal sensitivity and brainstem processing of nociceptive inputs.

Methods

Progesterone or vehicle gel was applied to the shaved forehead in male Sprague Dawley rats. As a site control, gel also was applied to the cheek on the side contralateral to corneal stimulation. Corneal mechanical thresholds were determined using the Cochet-Bonnet esthesiometer in intact and lacrimal gland excision–induced dry eye animals. Eye wipe behaviors in response to hypertonic saline and capsaicin were examined, and corneal mustard oil-induced c-Fos immunohistochemistry was quantified in the brainstem spinal trigeminal nucleus.

Results

Progesterone gel application to the forehead, but not the contralateral cheek, increased corneal mechanical thresholds in intact and lacrimal gland excision animals beginning <30 minutes after treatment. Subcutaneous injection of the local anesthetic bupivacaine into the forehead region before application of progesterone prevented the increase in corneal mechanical thresholds. Furthermore, progesterone decreased capsaicin-evoked eye wipe behavior in intact animals and hypertonic saline evoked eye wipe behavior in dry eye animals. The number of Fos-positive neurons located in the caudal region of the spinal trigeminal nucleus after corneal mustard oil application was reduced in progesterone-treated animals.

Conclusions

Results from this study indicate that progesterone, when applied to the forehead, produces analgesia as indicated by increased corneal mechanical thresholds and decreased nociceptive responses to hypertonic saline and capsaicin.

Androgen receptor antagonism accelerates disease onset in the SOD1G93A mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease typically more common in males, implicating androgens in progression of both patients and mouse models. Androgen effects are mediated by androgen receptor which is highly expressed in spinal motor neurons and skeletal muscles. To clarify the role of androgen receptors in ALS, we therefore examined the effect of androgen receptor antagonism in the SOD1^G93A mouse model.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

The androgen receptor antagonist, flutamide, was administered to presymptomatic SOD1^G93A mice as a slow-release subcutaneous implant (5 mg·day^-1 ). Testosterone, flutamide, and metabolite levels were measured in blood and spinal cord tissue by LC-MS-MS. Effects on disease onset and progression were assessed using motor function tests, survival, muscle, and neuropathological analyses.

KEY RESULTS

Flutamide was metabolised to 2-hydroxyflutamide achieving steady-state plasma levels across the study duration and reached the spinal cord at pharmacologically active concentrations. Flutamide treatment accelerated disease onset and locomotor dysfunction in male SOD1^G93A mice, but not female mice, without affecting survival. Analysis of hindlimb muscles revealed exacerbation of myofibre atrophy in male SOD1^G93A mice treated with flutamide, although motor neuron pathology was not affected.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The androgen receptor antagonist accelerated disease onset in male SOD1^G93A mice, leading to exacerbated muscle pathology, consistent with a role of androgens in modulating disease severity, sexual dimorphism, and peripheral pathology in ALS. These results also demonstrate a key contribution of skeletal muscle pathology to disease onset, but not outcome, in this mouse model of ALS.

Membrane Androgen Receptors Unrelated to Nuclear Steroid Receptors

Rapid (nongenomic) membrane-initiated androgen actions have been described in nuclear androgen receptor-null cells. Four distinct proteins have been proposed as membrane androgen receptors (mARs) or sensors. Transient receptor potential melastatin 8 (TRPM8) is a calcium channel that acts as a pain receptor and mediates androgen- and menthol-induced increases in calcium levels and survival of prostate cancer cells. Testosterone (T) directly interacts with TRPM8, but extensive androgen receptor binding studies to confirm its role as an mAR are lacking. Oxoeicosanoid receptor 1 (OXER1) is highly expressed in prostate cancer tissues, and its major ligand, 5-oxoeicosatretraenoic acid (5-oxo-ETE), is a potent inducer of prostate cancer cell proliferation and survival. T competes for 5-oxo-ETE binding to OXER1 and antagonizes 5-oxo-ETE-mediated inhibition of cAMP production. However, OXER1 does not meet a traditional criterion for its designation as an mAR because T treatment alone does not alter cAMP signaling. GPRC6A is a class C G protein-coupled receptor activated by l-α-amino acids and is modulated by calcium. Although there has been controversy over the proposed role of T as a GPRC6A ligand, androgen induction of GPRC6A signaling has recently been confirmed by several researchers. ZIP9 belongs to the zinc transporter ZIP (SLC39A) family and displays specific T binding characteristic of an mAR. ZIP9 mediates androgen-dependent intracellular signaling and apoptosis of breast and prostate cancer cells through activation of G proteins. Androgen-signaling functions of ZIP9 have been confirmed in other cells, but the overall importance of ZIP9 in androgen physiology remains unclear. Here, the current status of these four proteins as mARs or sensors is critically reviewed.

da Silva F, Larina‐Neto R, Chadi G, Zanoteli E. Omega-3 multiple effects increasing glucocorticoid-induced muscle atrophy: autophagic, AMPK and UPS mechanisms

Muscle atrophy occurs in many conditions, including use of glucocorticoids. N-3 (omega-3) is widely consumed due its healthy properties; however, concomitant use with glucocorticoids can increase its side effects. We evaluated the influences of N-3 on glucocorticoid atrophy considering IGF-1, Myostatin, MEK/ERK, AMPK pathways besides the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) and autophagic/lysosomal systems. Sixty animals constituted six groups: CT, N-3 (EPA 100 mg/kg/day for 40 days), DEXA 1.25 (DEXA 1.25 mg/kg/day for 10 days), DEXA 1.25 + N3 (EPA for 40 days + DEXA 1.25 mg/kg/day for the last 10 days), DEXA 2.5 (DEXA 2.5 mg/kg/day for 10 days), and DEXA 2.5 + N3 (EPA for 40 days + DEXA 2.5 mg/kg/day for 10 days). Results: N-3 associated with DEXA increases atrophy (fibers 1 and 2A), FOXO3a, P-SMAD2/3, Atrogin-1/MAFbx (mRNA) expression, and autophagic protein markers (LC3II, LC3II/LC3I, LAMP-1 and acid phosphatase). Additionally, N-3 supplementation alone decreased P-FOXO3a, PGC1-alpha, and type 1 muscle fiber area. Conclusion: N-3 supplementation increases muscle atrophy caused by DEXA in an autophagic, AMPK and UPS process.

Chemical compounds that suppress hypoxia-induced stress granule formation enhance cancer drug sensitivity of human cervical cancer HeLa cells

In eukaryotic cells, when exposed to certain types of stress including hypoxia, eIF2α is phosphorylated by several kinases including protein kinase R (PKR) and PKR-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK). Subsequently, protein translation is stopped and stress granules (SGs) are formed. Cancer cells form SGs under hypoxia. SGs accumulate apoptosis-related molecules and play anti-apoptotic roles. Thus, hypoxia-induced SG formation contributes to drug resistance in cancer cells. For this reason, inhibition of SG formation is expected to be beneficial in cancer therapy. To prove this concept, chemical reagents that inhibit SG formation are required as experimental tools. We searched for chemical compounds that suppress SG formation and identified that β-estradiol, progesterone, and stanolone (hereafter described as EPS) inhibit SG formation in human cervical cancer HeLa cells. As it turned out, EPS block PKR but not PERK, thus fail to suppress SG formation in most cancer cells, where SGs are formed via PERK. Nevertheless, in this study, we used HeLa cells as a model and demonstrated that EPS block hypoxia-induced SG formation in HeLa cells and consequently reduce drug resistance that HeLa cells acquire under hypoxia. Our findings support that inhibition of SG formation is a useful method to control cancers.

Corticosteroids as an adjunct to tuberculosis therapy

INTRODUCTION

Inflammation, or the prolonged resolution of inflammation, contributes to death from tuberculosis. Interest in inflammatory mechanisms and the prospect of beneficial immune modulation as an adjunct to antibacterial therapy has revived and the concept of host directed therapies has been advanced. Such renewed attention has however, overlooked the experience of such therapy with corticosteroids. Areas covered: The authors conducted literature searches and evaluated randomized clinical trials, systematic reviews and current guidelines and summarize these findings. They found evidence of benefit in meningeal and pericardial tuberculosis in HIV-1 uninfected persons, but less so in those HIV-1 coinfected and evidence of harm in the form of opportunist malignancy in those not prescribed antiretroviral therapy. Adjunctive corticosteroids are however of benefit in the treatment and prevention of paradoxical HIV-tuberculosis immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. Expert commentary: Further high-quality clinical trials and experimental medicine studies are warranted and analysis of materials arising from such studies could illuminate ways to improve corticosteroid efficacy or identify novel pathways for more specific intervention.

G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) in adult boar testes, epididymis and spermatozoa during epididymal maturation

The G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) is a transmembrane receptor considered as a mediator of rapid non-genomic responses. GPER has been found in the male reproductive tract of many mammalian species. However, in adult boars, GPER has been reported only in ejaculated spermatozoa. Therefore, we focused on GPER detection in testicular and epididymal tissues and sperm cells in adult boars. We found GPER in Leydig cells and seminiferous tubules of boar testes and in the secretory epithelium of epididymis. A weaker signal was visible in smooth muscle cells and spermatozoa in the epididymal tubule. In spermatozoa isolated from epididymal parts, GPER was found to localize mainly in the sperm acrosome and flagellum. We immunodetected several protein bands in the extracts of the tissues and epididymal spermatozoa. A significantly higher amount of GPER mRNA was detected in the spermatozoa from caput epididymis, whereas the mRNA expression was lower in tissues of testes and caput epididymal. Our results showed the first evidence of GPER in boar epididymal spermatozoa. Moreover, the GPER localization in adult boar testes, epididymis, and mature spermatozoa suggests the involvement of estrogens via transmembrane receptor and rapid non-genomic signaling in both the sperm development and post-testicular maturation.

Molecular pathways involved in the transport of nuclear receptors from the nucleus to cytoplasm

Nuclear receptors (NRs) are transcription regulators that direct the expression of many genes linked to cellular processes, such as proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Additionally, some cellular events are also modulated by signaling pathways induced by NRs outside of the nucleus. Hence, the subcellular transport of NRs is dynamic and is modulated by several signals, protein-protein interactions, and posttranslational modifications. Particularly, the exit of NRs from the nucleus to cytoplasm and/or other compartments is transcendental, as it is this export event, which determines their abundance in the cells' compartments, the activation or attenuation of nuclear or extranuclear pathways, and the magnitude and duration of their effects inside or outside of the nucleus. Consequently, an adequate control of the distribution of NRs is critical for homeostasis, because a deregulation in the nucleo-cytoplasmic transport of NRs could be involved in diseases including cancer as well as metabolic and vascular alterations. In this review, we investigated the pathways and molecular and biological aspects that have been described for the nuclear export of NRs so far and their functional relevance in some diseases. This information suggests that the transport of NRs out of the nucleus is a key mechanism for the identification of new therapeutic targets for alterations associated with the deregulation of the function of NRs.

Neuroanatomical and molecular correlates of cognitive and behavioural outcomes in hypogonadal males

Robust epidemiological, clinical and laboratory evidence supports emerging roles for the sex steroids in such domains as neurodevelopment, behaviour, learning and cognition. Regions of the mammalian brain that are involved in cognitive development and memory do not only express the classical nuclear androgen receptor, but also the non-genomic membrane receptor, which is a G protein-coupled receptor that mediates some rapid effects of the androgens on neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity. Under physiological conditions, hippocampal neurons do express the enzyme aromatase, and therefore actively aromatize testosterone to oestradiol. Although glial expression of the aromatase enzyme is minimal, increased expression following injury suggests a role for sex steroids in neuroprotection. It is therefore plausible to deduce that low levels of circulating androgens in males would perturb neuronal functions in relation to cognition and memory, as well as neural repair following injury. The present review is an overview of some roles of the sex steroids on cognitive function in males, and the neuroanatomical and molecular underpinnings of some behavioural and cognitive deficits characteristic of such genetic disorders noted for low androgen levels, including Klinefelter syndrome, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, Kallman syndrome and Prader-Willi syndrome. Recent literature in relation to some behavioural and cognitive changes secondary to surgical and pharmacological castration are also appraised.

Physiological basis behind ergogenic effects of anabolic androgens

Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are widely abused by the sporting community. Demonstrating performance enhancing effects of AAS in rigorous scientific studies is fraught with difficulty. In controlled studies, AAS have consistently been reported to increase muscle mass and strength. The clinical evidence that these anabolic effects are independent of, and additive to exercise are supported by preclinical studies suggesting that AAS and exercise affect muscle by overlapping, yet distinct mechanisms. AAS may also improve performance by their actions on other organ systems, such as the vasculature, and the erythropoietic and central nervous system, although this evidence is less strong. While most of the actions of AAS are thought to be mediated via classical androgen receptor-mediated genomic signalling, AAS may also produce rapid effects via non-genomic mechanisms.

Excreted Steroids in Vertebrate Social Communication

Steroids play vital roles in animal physiology across species, and the production of specific steroids is associated with particular internal biological functions. The internal functions of steroids are, in most cases, quite clear. However, an important feature of many steroids (their chemical stability) allows these molecules to play secondary, external roles as chemical messengers after their excretion via urine, feces, or other shed substances. The presence of steroids in animal excretions has long been appreciated, but their capacity to serve as chemosignals has not received as much attention. In theory, the blend of steroids excreted by an animal contains a readout of its own biological state. Initial mechanistic evidence for external steroid chemosensation arose from studies of many species of fish. In sea lampreys and ray-finned fishes, bile salts were identified as potent olfactory cues and later found to serve as pheromones. Recently, we and others have discovered that neurons in amphibian and mammalian olfactory systems are also highly sensitive to excreted glucocorticoids, sex steroids, and bile acids, and some of these molecules have been confirmed as mammalian pheromones. Steroid chemosensation in olfactory systems, unlike steroid detection in most tissues, is performed by plasma membrane receptors, but the details remain largely unclear. In this review, we present a broad view of steroid detection by vertebrate olfactory systems, focusing on recent research in fishes, amphibians, and mammals. We review confirmed and hypothesized mechanisms of steroid chemosensation in each group and discuss potential impacts on vertebrate social communication.

Modulation of HIV replication in monocyte derived macrophages (MDM) by steroid hormones

Significant sex specific differences in the progression of HIV/AIDS have been reported. Several studies have implicated steroid hormones in regulating host factor expression and modulating HIV transmission and replication. However, the exact mechanism exerted by steroid hormones estrogen and progesterone in the regulation of HIV-1 replication is still unclear. Results from the current study indicated a dose dependent down regulation of HIV-1 replication in monocyte derived macrophages pre-treated with high concentrations of estrogen or progesterone. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms associated with the down regulation of HIV-1 replication by estrogen and progesterone we used PCR arrays to analyze the expression profile of host genes involved in antiviral responses. Several chemokines, cytokines, transcription factors, interferon stimulated genes and genes involved in type-1 interferon signaling were down regulated in cells infected with HIV-1 pre-treated with high concentrations of estrogen or progesterone compared to untreated HIV-1 infected cells or HIV-1 infected cells treated with low concentrations of estrogen or progesterone. The down regulation of CXCL9, CXCL10 and CXCL11 chemokines and IL-1β, IL-6 cytokines in response to high concentrations of estrogen and progesterone pre-treatment in HIV-1 infected cells was confirmed at the protein level by quantitating chemokine and cytokine concentrations in the culture supernatant. These results demonstrate that a potent anti-inflammatory response is mediated by pre-treatment with high concentrations of estrogen and progesterone. Thus, our study suggests a strong correlation between the down-modulation of anti-viral and pro-inflammatory responses mediated by estrogen and progesterone pre-treatment and the down regulation of HIV-1 replication. These findings may be relevant to clinical observations of sex specific differences in patient populations and point to the need for further investigation.

Androgens trigger different growth responses in genetically identical human hair follicles in organ culture that reflect their epigenetic diversity in life

Male sex hormones-androgens-regulate male physique development. Without androgen signaling, genetic males appear female. During puberty, increasing androgens harness the hair follicle's unique regenerative ability to replace many tiny vellus hairs with larger, darker terminal hairs ( e.g., beard). Follicle response is epigenetically varied: some remain unaffected ( e.g., eyelashes) or are inhibited, causing balding. How sex steroid hormones alter such developmental processes is unclear, despite high incidences of hormone-driven cancer, hirsutism, and alopecia. Unfortunately, existing development models are not androgen sensitive. Here, we use hair follicles to establish an androgen-responsive human organ culture model. We show that women's intermediate facial follicles respond to men's higher androgen levels by synthesizing more hair over several days, unlike donor-matched, androgen-insensitive, terminal follicles. We demonstrate that androgen receptors-androgen-activated gene transcription regulators-are required and are present in vivo within these follicles. This is the first human organ that involves multiple cell types that responds appropriately to hormones in prolonged culture, in a way which mirrors its natural behavior. Thus, intermediate hair follicles offer a hormone-switchable human model with exceptional, unique availability of genetically identical, but epigenetically hormone-insensitive, terminal follicles. This should enable advances in understanding sex steroid hormone signaling, gene regulation, and developmental and regenerative systems and facilitate better therapies for hormone-dependent disorders.-Miranda, B. H., Charlesworth, M. R., Tobin, D. J., Sharpe, D. T., Randall, V. A. Androgens trigger different growth responses in genetically identical human hair follicles in organ culture that reflect their epigenetic diversity in life.

Functional characterization and anti-cancer action of the clinical phase II cardiac Na+/K+ ATPase inhibitor istaroxime: in vitro and in vivo properties and cross talk with the membrane androgen receptor

Sodium potassium pump (Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase) is a validated pharmacological target for the treatment of various cardiac conditions. Recent published data with Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase inhibitors suggest a potent anti-cancer action of these agents in multiple indications. In the present study, we focus on istaroxime, a Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase inhibitor that has shown favorable safety and efficacy properties in cardiac phase II clinical trials. Our experiments in 22 cancer cell lines and in prostate tumors in vivo proved the strong anti-cancer action of this compound. Istaroxime induced apoptosis, affected the key proliferative and apoptotic mediators c-Myc and caspase-3 and modified actin cystoskeleton dynamics and RhoA activity in prostate cancer cells. Interestingly, istaroxime was capable of binding to mAR, a membrane receptor mediating rapid, non-genomic actions of steroids in prostate and other cells. These results support a multi-level action of Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase inhibitors in cancer cells and collectively validate istaroxime as a strong re-purposing candidate for further cancer drug development.

Calycosin inhibits the in vitro and in vivo growth of breast cancer cells through WDR7-7-GPR30 Signaling

BACKGROUND

Clinically, breast cancer is generally classified into estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) or estrogen receptor-negative (ER-) subtypes. The phytoestrogen calycosin has been shown to inhibit the proliferation of ER+ cells, which may be mediated by a feedback loop that involves miR-375, RAS dexamethasone-induced 1 (RASD1), and ERα. However, how calycosin acts on ER- breast cancer cells remains unclear.

RESULTS

Here, we show that calycosin inhibited the proliferation of both ER- (MDA-MB-468 and SKBR3) and ER+ breast cancer cells (MCF-7 and T47D) and that these inhibitory effects were associated with the up-regulation of the long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) WDR7-7. For the first time, we demonstrate that the expression of WDR7-7 is reduced in breast cancer cell lines and that the overexpression of WDR7-7 inhibits growth through a mechanism that involves G-protein coupled estrogen receptor 30 (GPR30). Meanwhile, we show that calycosin stimulated the WDR7-7-GPR30 signaling pathway in MCF-7, T47D, MDA-MB-468, and SKBR3 breast cancer cells. In contrast, in MCF10A and GPR30-deficient MDA-MB-231 cells, due to a lack of WDR7-7-GPR30 for activation, calycosin failed to inhibit cell growth. Additionally, in all four GPR30-positive breast cancer lines, calycosin decreased the phosphorylation levels of SRC, EGFR, ERK1/2 and Akt, but the inhibition of WDR7-7 blocked these changes and increased proliferation. In mice bearing MCF-7 or SKBR3 xenografts, tumor growth was inhibited by calycosin, and changes in expression the levels of WDR7-7 and GPR30 in tumor tissues were similar to those in cultured MCF-7 and SKBR3 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest the possibility that calycosin inhibited the proliferation of breast cancer cells, at least partially, through WDR7-7-GPR30 signaling, which may explain why calycosin can exert inhibitory effects on ER- breast cancer.

Membrane estrogen receptor 1 is required for normal reproduction in male and female mice

Steroid hormones, acting through their cognate nuclear receptors, are critical for many reproductive and non-reproductive functions. Over the past two decades, it has become increasingly clear that in addition to cytoplasmic/nuclear steroid receptors that alter gene transcription when liganded, a small fraction of cellular steroid receptors are localized to the cell membranes, where they mediate rapid steroid hormone effects. 17β-Estradiol (E2), a key steroid hormone for both male and female reproduction, acts predominately through its main receptor, estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1). Most ESR1 is nuclear; however, 5-10% of ESR1 is localized to the cell membrane after being palmitoylated at cysteine 451 in mice. This review discusses reproductive phenotypes of a newly-developed mouse model with a C451A point mutation that precludes membrane targeting of ESR1. This transgenic mouse, termed the nuclear-only ESR1 (NOER) mouse, shows extensive male and female reproductive abnormalities and infertility despite normally functional nuclear ESR1 (nESR1). These results provide the first in vivo evidence that membrane-initiated E2/ESR1 signaling is required for normal male and female reproductive functions and fertility. Signaling mechanisms for membrane ESR1 (mESR1), as well as how mESR1 works with nESR1 to mediate estrogen effects, are still being established. We discuss some possible mechanisms by which mESR1 might facilitate nESR1 signaling, as well as the emerging evidence that mESR1 might be a major mediator of epigenetic effects of estrogens, which are potentially linked to various adult-onset pathologies.

Sex Hormones and Cardiometabolic Health: Role of Estrogen and Estrogen Receptors

With increased life expectancy, women will spend over three decades of life postmenopause. The menopausal transition increases susceptibility to metabolic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. Thus, it is more important than ever to develop effective hormonal treatment strategies to protect aging women. Understanding the role of estrogens, and their biological actions mediated by estrogen receptors (ERs), in the regulation of cardiometabolic health is of paramount importance to discover novel targeted therapeutics. In this brief review, we provide a detailed overview of the literature, from basic science findings to human clinical trial evidence, supporting a protective role of estrogens and their receptors, specifically ERα, in maintenance of cardiometabolic health. In so doing, we provide a concise mechanistic discussion of some of the major tissue-specific roles of estrogens signaling through ERα. Taken together, evidence suggests that targeted, perhaps receptor-specific, hormonal therapies can and should be used to optimize the health of women as they transition through menopause, while reducing the undesired complications that have limited the efficacy and use of traditional hormone replacement interventions.

Of Oestrogens and Sperm: A Review of the Roles of Oestrogens and Oestrogen Receptors in Male Reproduction

The crucial role that oestrogens play in male reproduction has been generally accepted; however, the exact mechanism of their action is not entirely clear and there is still much more to be clarified. The oestrogen response is mediated through oestrogen receptors, as well as classical oestrogen receptors’ variants, and their specific co-expression plays a critical role. The importance of oestrogen signalling in male fertility is indicated by the adverse effects of selected oestrogen-like compounds, and their interaction with oestrogen receptors was proven to cause pathologies. The aims of this review are to summarise the current knowledge on oestrogen signalling during spermatogenesis and sperm maturation and discuss the available information on oestrogen receptors and their splice variants. An overview is given of species-specific differences including in humans, along with a detailed summary of the methodology outcome, including all the genetically manipulated models available to date. This review provides coherent information on the recently discovered mechanisms of oestrogens’ and oestrogen receptors’ effects and action in both testicular somatic and germ cells, as well as in mature sperm, available for mammals, including humans.

Increased trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) expression is associated with a positive survival rate in patients with breast cancer

PURPOSE

A correlation between breast cancer and thyroid disorders has been described in previous studies. Degraded thyroid hormones are referred to as trace amines. These endogenous amines have the ability to bind to the G-protein-coupled receptor TAAR1 (trace amine-associated receptor) and thereby activate it. TAAR1 is able to modulate the serotonergic and dopaminergic system in the brain and has so far been studied in the neurological field. The following study represents the first investigation of the regulation of TAAR1 in primary breast cancer (no metastases, M0).

METHODS

Immunohistochemical analyses were carried out to detect TAAR1 expression in formalin fixed paraffin embedded breast cancer samples. Survival times of primary breast cancer patients (M0) with and without TAAR1 expression in their tumours were compared by Kaplan-Meier curves, and correlations between ordinal variables were determined with Spearman's rank correlation coefficient.

RESULTS

The investigation showed a correlation between TAAR1 expression and tumour differentiation grade. A well differentiated tumour grade (G1) was associated with higher TAAR1 expression and HER2 and HER4 positivity predicted higher TAAR1 expression. A TAAR1 overexpression (IRS ≥ 6) was associated with significantly longer overall survival (OS) (p = 0.02) than that of reduced TAAR1 expression (IRS < 6) during a maximum follow-up of 14 years, demonstrating that TAAR1 has a favourable effect on OS of early breast cancer patients.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that TAAR1 seems to be an independent predictor for breast cancer survival. Modulation of TAAR1 may represent a novel targeting strategy for breast cancer prevention and therapy.

LC–MS/MS simultaneous analysis of allopregnanolone, epiallopregnanolone, pregnanolone, dehydroepiandrosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone 3-sulfate in human plasma

Aim: Several neuropsychopharmacological properties have been attributed to the 3α-reduced pregnane steroids, allopregnanolone and pregnanolone, as well as to dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate because of their ability to modulate γ-aminobutyric acid (GABAA) receptors in the CNS. In order to understand better their role in several mechanisms in CNS, a new methodology is proposed to monitor these compounds in human plasma. Methodology & results: The analytes were first derivatized with 2-hydrazinopyridine and extracted from plasma using SPE. Then, the compounds were separated and detected by LC–MS/MS. A mobile phase of formic acid (0.1%) in water and methanol through a gradient of composition and a flow rate of 0.3 ml min-1 resulted in good separations of the analytes. Linear responses in wide range of concentrations and LOQs ranging from 10 (dehydroepiandrosterone 3-sulfate) to 40 pg ml-1 (dehydroepiandrosterone) were obtained in <9 min. The method proposed has been validated and then applied to monitor these neurosteroids in plasma samples from ten volunteers. Conclusion: For the first time, a straightforward and reliable method for the chromatographic separation of allopregnanolone, epiallopregnanolone and pregnanolone, as well as of dehydroepiandrosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone 3-sulfate was carried out, with optimal accuracy, sensitivity and specificity.

Stable Isotope Labeling with Amino Acids (SILAC)-Based Proteomics of Primary Human Kidney Cells Reveals a Novel Link between Male Sex Hormones and Impaired Energy Metabolism in Diabetic Kidney Disease

Male sex predisposes to many kidney diseases. Considering that androgens exert deleterious effects in a variety of cell types within the kidney, we hypothesized that dihydrotestosterone (DHT) would alter the biology of the renal tubular cell by inducing changes in the proteome. We employed stable isotope labeling with amino acids (SILAC) in an indirect spike-in fashion to accurately quantify the proteome in DHT- and 17β-estradiol (EST)-treated human proximal tubular epithelial cells (PTEC). Of the 5043 quantified proteins, 76 were differentially regulated. Biological processes related to energy metabolism were significantly enriched among DHT-regulated proteins. SILAC ratios of 3 candidates representing glycolysis, N-acetylglucosamine metabolism and fatty acid β-oxidation, namely glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (GPI), glucosamine-6-phosphate-N-acetyltransferase 1 (GNPNAT1), and mitochondrial trifunctional protein subunit alpha (HADHA), were verified in vitro. In vivo, renal GPI and HADHA protein expression was significantly increased in males. Furthermore, male sex was associated with significantly higher GPI, GNPNAT1, and HADHA kidney protein expression in two different murine models of diabetes. Enrichment analysis revealed a link between our DHT-regulated proteins and oxidative stress within the diabetic kidney. This finding was validated in vivo, as we observed increased oxidative stress levels in control and diabetic male kidneys, compared with females. This in depth quantitative proteomics study of human primary PTEC response to sex hormone administration suggests that male sex hormone stimulation results in perturbed energy metabolism in kidney cells, and that this perturbation results in increased oxidative stress in the renal cortex. The proteome-level changes associated with androgens may play a crucial role in the development of structural and functional changes in the diseased kidney. With our findings, we propose a possible link between diabetic and non-diabetic kidney disease progression and male sex hormone levels. Data are available via ProteomeXchange (https://www.ebi.ac.uk/pride/archive/) with identifier PXD003811.

Progesterone Receptor Membrane Component 1 Mediates Progesterone-Induced Suppression of Oocyte Meiotic Prophase I and Primordial Folliculogenesis

Well-timed progression of primordial folliculogenesis is essential for mammalian female fertility. Progesterone (P4) inhibits primordial follicle formation under physiological conditions; however, P4 receptor that mediates this effect and its underlying mechanisms are unclear. In this study, we used an in vitro organ culture system to show that progesterone receptor membrane component 1 (PGRMC1) mediated P4-induced inhibition of oocyte meiotic prophase I and primordial follicle formation. We found that membrane-impermeable BSA-conjugated P4 inhibited primordial follicle formation similar to that by P4. Interestingly, PGRMC1 and its partner serpine1 mRNA-binding protein 1 were highly expressed in oocytes in perinatal ovaries. Inhibition or RNA interference of PGRMC1 abolished the suppressive effect of P4 on follicle formation. Furthermore, P4-PGRMC1 interaction blocked oocyte meiotic progression and decreased intra-oocyte cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels in perinatal ovaries. cAMP analog dibutyryl cAMP reversed P4–PGRMC1 interaction-induced inhibition of meiotic progression and follicle formation. Thus, our results indicated that PGRMC1 mediated P4-induced suppression of oocyte meiotic progression and primordial folliculogenesis by decreasing intra-oocyte cAMP levels.

Acute exposure to progesterone attenuates cardiac contraction by modifying myofilament calcium sensitivity in the female mouse heart

Acute application of progesterone attenuates cardiac contraction, although the underlying mechanisms are unclear. We investigated whether progesterone modified contraction in isolated ventricular myocytes and identified the Ca²⁺ handling mechanisms involved in female C57BL/6 mice (6-9 mo; sodium pentobarbital anesthesia). Cells were field-stimulated (4 Hz; 37°C) and exposed to progesterone (0.001-10.0 μM) or vehicle (35 min). Ca²⁺ transients (fura-2) and cell shortening were recorded simultaneously. Maximal concentrations of progesterone inhibited peak contraction by 71.4% (IC₅₀ = 160 ± 50 nM; n = 12) and slowed relaxation by 75.4%. By contrast, progesterone had no effect on amplitudes or time courses of underlying Ca²⁺ transients. Progesterone (1 µM) also abbreviated action potential duration. When the duration of depolarization was controlled by voltage-clamp, progesterone attenuated contraction and slowed relaxation but did not affect Ca²⁺ currents, Ca²⁺ transients, sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) content, or fractional release of SR Ca²⁺ Actomyosin MgATPase activity was assayed in myofilaments from hearts perfused with progesterone (1 μM) or vehicle (35 min). While maximal responses to Ca²⁺ were not affected by progesterone, myofilament Ca²⁺ sensitivity was reduced (EC₅₀ = 0.94 ± 0.01 µM for control, n = 7 vs. 1.13 ± 0.05 μM for progesterone, n = 6; P < 0.05) and progesterone increased phosphorylation of myosin binding protein C. The effects on contraction were inhibited by lonaprisan (progesterone receptor antagonist) and levosimendan (Ca²⁺ sensitizer). Unlike results in females, progesterone had no effect on contraction or myofilament Ca²⁺ sensitivity in age-matched male mice. These data indicate that progesterone reduces myofilament Ca²⁺ sensitivity in female hearts, which may exacerbate manifestations of cardiovascular disease late in pregnancy when progesterone levels are high.

NEW & NOTEWORTHY

We investigated myocardial effects of acute application of progesterone. In females, but not males, progesterone attenuates and slows cardiomyocyte contraction with no effect on calcium transients. Progesterone also reduces myofilament calcium sensitivity in female hearts. This may adversely affect heart function, especially when serum progesterone levels are high in pregnancy.Listen to this article's corresponding podcast at https://ajpheart.podbean.com/e/acute-progesterone-modifies-cardiac-contraction/.

Modulation of Human Sperm Capacitation by Progesterone, Estradiol, and Luteinizing Hormone

Sperm residency in female reproductive tract is essential to undergo functional changes that allow the cell to encounter the oocyte and fertilize it. Those changes, known as capacitation, are modulated by molecules located in the uterotubal surface and fluids. During the fertile window, there is a notable increase in some reproductive hormones such as progesterone, estradiol, and luteinizing hormone in the female reproductive tract, so spermatozoa are exposed to these hormones in an environment that must favor gamete encountering and fusion. This spatiotemporal coincidence suggests that they are suitable candidates to modulate sperm function in order to synchronize the events that ultimately allow the success of fertilization. The presence of receptors for these hormones in the human sperm has been described, but their physiological relevance and mechanisms of action have been either subject of controversy or not properly investigated. This review intends to summarize the evidence that support the participation of these hormones in the regulation of sperm capacitation.