Analytical Evaluation and Antioxidant Properties of Some Secondary Metabolites in Northern Italian Mono- and Multi-Varietal Extra Virgin Olive Oils (EVOOs) from Early and Late Harvested Olives

Maximizing Antioxidant Potential in Picual Virgin Olive Oil: Tailoring Agronomic and Technological Factors with Response Surface Methodology

Over the past years, a prolonged drought has affected Spain, raising significant concerns across various sectors, especially agriculture. This extended period of dry weather is profoundly affecting the growth and development of olive trees, potentially impacting the quality and quantity of olive oil produced. This study aims to assess the impact of agronomic factors, i.e., olive maturation and irrigation management, as well as the technological factors involved in the production process, on the antioxidant content of Picual virgin olive oil. Mathematical models were developed to maximize the concentration of polyphenols, orthodiphenols, chlorophylls, carotenes, and tocopherols in olive oils. Findings indicate that increasing the malaxation temperature from 20 to 60 °C and reducing the mixing time from 60 to 20 min positively influenced the polyphenol and orthodiphenol content. Although irrigation did not significantly affect the polyphenols, pigments, and α-tocopherol contents, it may enhance the β- and γ-tocopherol content. Optimal conditions for producing antioxidant-enriched virgin olive oils involved olives from rainfed crops, with a moisture index of 3-4, and a 60-min malaxation process at 60 °C. Under these conditions, the total phenol content doubled, pigment content increased fourfold, and α-tocopherol content rose by 15%. These findings provide relevant knowledge to interpret the year-to-year variation in both organoleptic and analytical profiles of virgin olive oils.

Rare Earth Element Variability in Italian Extra Virgin Olive Oils from Abruzzo Region

Extra virgin olive oil is a food product from the Mediterranean area that is particularly and continuously experiencing to increasing instances of fraudulent geographical labeling. Therefore, origin protection must be improved, mainly based on its intrinsic chemical composition. This study aimed to perform a preliminary chemical characterization of Abruzzo extra virgin olive oils (EVOOs) using rare earth elements (REEs). REEs were evaluated in EVOO samples of different varieties produced in different geographical origins within the Abruzzo region (Italy) in three harvest years using ICP-MS chemometric techniques. Principal component, discriminant, and hierarchical cluster analyses were conducted to verify the influence of the variety, origin, and vintage of the REE composition. The results of a three-year study showed a uniform REE pattern and a strong correlation in most EVOOs, in particular for Y, La, Ce, and Nd. However, europium and erbium were also found in some oil samples. Compared with cultivar and origin, only the harvest year slightly influenced the REE composition, highlighting the interactions of the olive system with the climate and soil chemistry that could affect the multielement composition of EVOOs.

Bio-phenols determination in olive oils: Recent mass spectrometry approaches

Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) is largely used in Mediterranean diet, and it is also worldwide apprised not only for its organoleptic properties but also for its healthy effects mainly attributed to the presence of several naturally occurring phenolic and polyphenolic compounds (bio-phenols). These compounds are characterized by the presence of multiple phenolic groups in more or less complex structures. Their content is fundamental in defining the healthy qualities of EVOO and consequently the analytical methods for their characterization and quantification are of current interest. Traditionally their determination has been conducted using a colorimetric assay based on the reaction of Folin-Ciocalteu (FC) reagent with the functional hydroxy groups of phenolic compounds. Identification and quantification of the bio-phenols in olive oils requires certainly more performing analytical methods. Chromatographic separation is now commonly achieved by HPLC, coupled with spectrometric devices as UV, FID, and MS. This last approach constitutes an actual cutting-edge application for bio-phenol determination in complex matrices as olive oils, mostly on the light of the development of mass analyzers and the achievement of high resolution and accurate mass measurement in more affordable instrument configurations. After a short survey of some rugged techniques used for bio-phenols determination, in this review have been described the most recent mass spectrometry-based methods, adopted for the analysis of the bio-phenols in EVOOs. In particular, the sample handling and the results of HPLC coupled with low- and high-resolution MS and MS/MS analyzers, of ion mobility mass spectrometry and ambient mass spectrometry have been reported and discussed.

The Ancient Olive Trees (Olea europaea L.) of the Maltese Islands: A Rich and Unexplored Patrimony to Enhance Oliviculture

A prospecting campaign in the Maltese Islands has ensured the survival of several ancient olive trees (Olea europaea L.), genetically distant from known cultivars. Most of these plants were abandoned or partially cultivated. A two-year evaluation of fruit characteristics and compositions was performed on samples collected from the main representatives of these indigenous genotypes. Analyses were carried out using Gas Chromatography, High-Performance Liquid Chromatography and Near Infrared Spectrometry. Among the fruit samples, a wide range of variations was observed. Some of the genotypes showed fruit traits suitable for table olive production. This is the case of samples with a pulp/pit ratio higher than four, such as 1Wardija, 1Caritas, 1Plattini, 1Bingemma Malta and 3Loretu, whilst 1Bidni, 1Mellieha, 2Qnotta, 3Loretu, 1Bingemma Malta and 1Caritas were suitable for dual purpose. The total phenol content ranged from 6.3 (1Wardija) to 117.9 (2Mtarfa) g/kg of fresh pulp. The average percentage of MUFA was quite low for most of the varieties. These genotypes, which presumably originated in the Maltese Islands and are well adapted to the local pedo-climatic conditions, are being propagated for the following evaluation of their bio-agronomical performance (production, suitability to intensive cultivation, environmental sustainability, product quality, etc.). The purpose is to select, among these local genotypes, the most outstanding varieties, in terms of phenolic and FA profile and agronomical potential, to spread into cultivation, thereby contributing to an increase in the quality of the local table and olive oil production, strongly linked to the territory.

Discrimination of Olive Oil and Extra-Virgin Olive Oil from Other Vegetable Oils by Targeted and Untargeted HRMS Profiling of Phenolic and Triterpenic Compounds Combined with Chemometrics

Extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) and virgin olive oil (VOO) are valuable natural products of great economic interest for their producing countries, and therefore, it is necessary to establish methods capable of proving the authenticity of these oils on the market. This work presents a methodology for the discrimination of olive oil and extra-virgin olive oil from other vegetable oils based on targeted and untargeted high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) profiling of phenolic and triterpenic compounds coupled with multivariate statistical analysis of the data. Some phenolic compounds (cinnamic acid, coumaric acids, apigenin, pinocembrin, hydroxytyrosol and maslinic acid), secoiridoids (elenolic acid, ligstroside and oleocanthal) and lignans (pinoresinol and hydroxy and acetoxy derivatives) could be olive oil biomarkers, whereby these compounds are quantified in higher amounts in EVOO compared to other vegetable oils. The principal component analysis (PCA) performed based on the targeted compounds from the oil samples confirmed that cinnamic acid, coumaric acids, apigenin, pinocembrin, hydroxytyrosol and maslinic acid could be considered as tracers for olive oils authentication. The heat map profiles based on the untargeted HRMS data indicate a clear discrimination of the olive oils from the other vegetable oils. The proposed methodology could be extended to the authentication and classification of EVOOs depending on the variety, geographical origin, or adulteration practices.

Hydroxytyrosol in Foods: Analysis, Food Sources, EU Dietary Intake, and Potential Uses

Hydroxytyrosol (HT) is a phenolic compound with proven biological properties present in a limited number of foods such as table olives, virgin olive oil (VOO) and wines. The present work aims to evaluate the dietary intake of HT in the European (EU) population by compiling scattered literature data on its concentration in foods. The consumption of the involved foods was estimated based on the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database. The updated average contents of HT are as follows: 629.1, 5.2 and 2.1 µg/g for olives, olive oil and wine, respectively. The HT estimated intake in the European Union (EU) adult population falls within 0.13–6.82 mg/day/person, with table olives and wine being the main contributors. The estimated mean dietary intake of HT in EU countries is 1.97 ± 2.62 mg/day. Greece showed the highest HT intake (6.82 mg/day), while Austria presented the lowest (0.13 mg/day). Moreover, HT is an authorized novel food ingredient in the EU that can be added to different foods. Since the estimated HT intake is substantially low, the use of HT as a food ingredient seems feasible. This opens new possibilities for revalorizing waste products from olive oil and olive production which are rich HT sources.

Geographical Origin Assessment of Extra Virgin Olive Oil via NMR and MS Combined with Chemometrics as Analytical Approaches

Geographical origin assessment of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) is recognised worldwide as raising consumers’ awareness of product authenticity and the need to protect top-quality products. The need for geographical origin assessment is also related to mandatory legislation and/or the obligations of true labelling in some countries. Nevertheless, official methods for such specific authentication of EVOOs are still missing. Among the analytical techniques useful for certification of geographical origin, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and mass spectroscopy (MS), combined with chemometrics, have been widely used. This review considers published works describing the use of these analytical methods, supported by statistical protocols such as multivariate analysis (MVA), for EVOO origin assessment. The research has shown that some specific countries, generally corresponding to the main worldwide producers, are more interested than others in origin assessment and certification. Some specific producers such as Italian EVOO producers may have been focused on this area because of consumers’ interest and/or intrinsic economical value, as testified also by the national concern on the topic. Both NMR- and MS-based approaches represent a mature field where a general validation method for EVOOs geographic origin assessment could be established as a reference recognised procedure.

Evaluation of Olive Oil Quality with Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors: A Review

Electrochemical sensors, sensor arrays and biosensors, alongside chemometric instruments, have progressed remarkably of late, being used on a wide scale in the qualitative and quantitative evaluation of olive oil. Olive oil is a natural product of significant importance, since it is a rich source of bioactive compounds with nutritional and therapeutic properties, and its quality is important both for consumers and for distributors. This review aims at analysing the progress reported in the literature regarding the use of devices based on electrochemical (bio)sensors to evaluate the bioactive compounds in olive oil. The main advantages and limitations of these approaches on construction technique, analysed compounds, calculus models, as well as results obtained, are discussed in view of estimation of future progress related to achieving a portable, practical and rapid miniature device for analysing the quality of virgin olive oil (VOO) at different stages in the manufacturing process.

Olive oil varieties and ripening stages containing the antioxidants hydroxytyrosol and derivatives in compliance with EFSA health claim

Virgin olive oils (VOO) and extra virgin olive oils (EVOO) contain a specific fraction of polyphenols (hydroxytyrosol and its derivatives) that produce beneficial physiological effects. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) authorised a health claim for olive oil (OO) containing at least 250 mg/Kg of those polyphenols. The specific polyphenol content of twelve varieties of EVOO extracted at three different maturation stages was investigated. The total concentration of specific polyphenols changed depending on the olive oil variety. The varieties showing the highest specific polyphenol content (all above 250 mg/Kg) were Lechín Sevilla (429.5 ± 5), Manzanilla Sevilla (407.6 ± 6) and Cornezuelo (394.0 ± 6) in the green phase; Cornicabra (362.0 ± 8), Nevadillo Negro (326.5 ± 4) and Picual 296.0 ± 6) in the turning phase; and Lechin Granada (382.8 ± 4), Picual (317.7 ± 3), Lechin Sevilla (294.4 ± 5) and Manzanilla Sevilla (278.0 ± 2) in the mature phase. These results could have potential application for the industrial production of a category of healthy antioxidant OO.

Application of High Resolution Mass Spectrometric methods coupled with chemometric techniques in olive oil authenticity studies - A review

Extra Virgin Olive Oil (EVOO), the emblematic food of the Mediterranean diet, is recognized for its nutritional value and beneficial health effects. The main authenticity issues associated with EVOO's quality involve the organoleptic properties (EVOO or defective), mislabeling of production type (organic or conventional), variety and geographical origin, and adulteration. Currently, there is an emerging need to characterize EVOOs and evaluate their genuineness. This can be achieved through the development of analytical methodologies applying advanced "omics" technologies and the investigation of EVOOs chemical fingerprints. The objective of this review is to demonstrate the analytical performance of High Resolution Mass Spectrometry (HRMS) in the field of food authenticity assessment, allowing the determination of a wide range of food constituents with exceptional identification capabilities. HRMS-based workflows used for the investigation of critical olive oil authenticity issues are presented and discussed, combined with advanced data processing, comprehensive data mining and chemometric tools. The use of unsupervised classification tools, such as Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Hierarchical Clustering Analysis (HCA), as well as supervised classification techniques, including Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA), Support Vector Machine (SVM), Partial Least Square Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA), Orthogonal Projection to Latent Structure-Discriminant Analysis (OPLS-DA), Counter Propagation Artificial Neural Networks (CP-ANNs), Self-Organizing Maps (SOMs) and Random Forest (RF) is summarized. The combination of HRMS methodologies with chemometrics improves the quality and reliability of the conclusions from experimental data (profile or fingerprints), provides valuable information suggesting potential authenticity markers and is widely applied in food authenticity studies.

Antioxidants in Extra Virgin Olive Oil and Table Olives: Connections between Agriculture and Processing for Health Choices

: This review focuses on the conditions required to increase and maintain the antioxidant nutrients in both extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) and table olives (TOs) from the agronomic and technological practices to the gastronomy. The main antioxidants of TOs and EVOO are phenol alcohols and acids, secoiridoids, lignans and flavones, all of which possess the ability to prolong the oil's shelf-life and exhibit healthy properties for humans. The precise detection of secoiridoid derivatives remains the breakthrough for the nutritional and health quality certification of extra virgin olive oils (EVOOs) required for EFSA health claims. To attain the necessary antioxidant quality in both EVOO and TOs, it is necessary to hard focus on the several steps in the production chain, including olive cultivar, agronomic conditions, harvesting methods, and transformation technology. The quality level is maintained if the storage conditions aim to minimize the oxidative processes that occur due to oxygen and light. In terms of minor polar biophenols, there is disagreement on which between the organic or conventional EVOOs show higher concentration values. The strict disciplinary of production of protected designation EVOOs does not ensure higher phenol values in comparison to the artisanal EVOOs. In gastronomy, the EVOOs are preferable to seed oils, particularly during frying vegetable. The EVOOs show higher heat stability, linked both to the fatty acid composition and the phenol content, that is important for preventing fatty acids oxidation. Concerning TOs, the commercial presentation includes olives and olive paste. Both products show a remarkable loss of natural antioxidants after pasteurization and during storage as the thermal treatment mostly impacts on TOs secoiridoids.

Polyphenol Characterization and Skin-Preserving Properties of Hydroalcoholic Flower Extract from Himantoglossum robertianum (Orchidaceae)

Himantoglossum robertianum (Loisel.) P. Delforge is a Mediterranean orchid whose propagation in vitro has been achieved, making it eligible as a source of bioactive substances. Flowers were analyzed by light and SEM microscopy and used to obtain a polyphenol-rich, hydroalcoholic flower extract (HFE). HFE was characterized for total phenols, flavonoids and proanthocyanidins, and for polyphenol profile by RP-LC-DAD. Antioxidant assays, in vitro collagenase and elastase inhibition, and MTT and cell motility assays on HaCaT keratinocytes were done. Microscopy showed epidermal cells containing anthocyanins in the flower labellum. Flavonoids (flavones and flavan-3-ols) represented the most abundant compounds (42.91%), followed by scopoletin (33.79%), and phenolic acids (23.3%). Antioxidant assays showed strong activities, rating ORAC > FRAP > TEAC > β-carotene bleaching > DPPH > iron-chelation. Biological assays showed elastase and collagenase inhibition (up to 42% and 78%, respectively), improvement of HaCaT cell viability after treatment with 500 μM H₂O₂ (from 30% to 84% of control), and stimulation of cell migration rate up to 210% of control. In summary, HFE counteracted different free radicals, while protective properties were shown by cell-free and cell-based bioassays, suggesting the possible use of H. robertianum flowers for skin-preserving, repair, and anti-aging applications.

Nitrogen Headspace Improves the Extra Virgin Olive Oil Shelf-Life, Preserving Its Functional Properties

The functional foods field has recently evolved due to new research being carried out in the food area and greater regulations; these factors have contributed to the creation of health claims, and to the increasing attention that consumers give to health-promoting food products. The aim of this research was to improve the shelf-life of a typical functional food of the Mediterranean diet, the Extra Virgin Olive Oil (EVOO). We focused our attention on the standardization and validation of a production process, starting from the cultivation and harvesting of the olives, which would guarantee a product of quality in terms of bioactive compound content. Furthermore, a methodology/procedure to preserve them in the best way over a long period of time, in order to guarantee the consumer receives a product that retains its functional and organoleptic native properties, was evaluated. The monitoring of biological cultivations, harvesting, milling process, and storage, as well as careful quality control of the analytical parameters (e.g., contents of polyphenols, α-tocopherol, fatty acids, acidity, peroxides, dienes, trienes, ΔK, and antioxidant power) showed that, under the same conditions, a nitrogen headspace is a discriminating factor for the maintenance of the functional properties of EVOO.

Safety and efficacy of hydroxytyrosol-based formulation on skin inflammation: in vitro evaluation on reconstructed human epidermis model

BACKGROUND

Atopic dermatitis is a multifactorial immune-mediated skin disorder characterized by an alteration of epidermal barrier function and onset of skin lesions, which range from mild erythema to severe lichenification. Treatment consists in hydration with possible use of topical or immunomodulatory corticosteroids, which, however sometimes showed side effects. Recently, the interest in natural compounds has grown significantly and among these, hydroxytyrosol (HT) plays a pivotal role due to its strong and well-known anti-inflammatory activity.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to investigate the safety and efficacy of Fenolia® Eudermal Cream 15 (HT-based formulation) on epidermal barrier impaired as consequence of skin injury.

METHODS

Whit this purpose, morphologic and structural as well as anti-inflammatory evaluations, after treatment with pro-inflammatory mediators (PBS 1 X and LPS) and HT-based formulation on reconstructed human epidermis (RHE) were carried out by qualitative (hematoxylin/eosin- and immunostaining) and quantitative (MTT assay, IL-1α and IL-8 release by ELISA) techniques. Furthermore, HT absorption through the epidermal barrier was evaluated by RP-LC-DAD analysis.

RESULTS

A rise in the thickness of the epidermis as well as an appropriate maturation and protein expression (Loricrin, Fillagrin, E-Cadherin and Cytokeratins 5&6) were detected in treated RHE samples. In particular, the HT-based formulation was found to stimulate cell proliferation, as evidenced by the significant increase in Ki67 expression, which suggests the involvement of repair mechanisms, increasing epithelial regeneration and differentiation and improving the epidermal barrier effect. Furthermore, HT-based formulation showed a statistically significant anti-inflammatory activity by reducing both IL-1α and IL-8 release by RHE tissues, greater than the reference drug dexamethasone. Finally, excellent transcutaneous absorption values were found for HT, demonstrating how this new formulation increases the availability of the bioactive compound.

CONCLUSIONS

In light of these results, Fenolia® Eudermal Cream 15 could be an effective agent to counteract atopic dermatitis. Graphical abstract Safety and efficacy of hydroxytyrosol-based formulation on skin inflammation: in vitro evaluation on reconstructed human epidermis model.

Effects of Organic and Conventional Growing Systems on the Phenolic Profile of Extra-Virgin Olive Oil

Extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) is largely appreciated for its proven nutritional properties. Additionally, organic foods are perceived as healthier by consumers. In this context, the aim of the present study was to compare the phenolic profiles of EVOO from olives of the Hojiblanca variety, cultivated under organic and conventional systems. The quantification and identification of individual polyphenols was carried out by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry in tandem mode (LC-MS/MS). Significantly higher levels (p < 0.05) of phenolic compounds were found in organic EVOOs. The methodology used was able to detect previously unreported differences in bioactive components between organic and conventional EVOOs.

Fatty Acids and Phenolic Profiles of Extravirgin Olive Oils from Selected Italian Cultivars Introduced in Southwestern Province of Pakistan

Mediterranean olive trees have been cultivated in Pakistan for decades to promote olive cultivation and use of olive oil. The qualitative characteristics of seven mono and one multi-varietal extra virgin olive oils (EVOOs) extracted from Italian cultivars grown in different areas of Balochistan a southwestern province of Pakistan were evaluated. Present study aims to assess the impact of bioclimatological change on biochemical profile of exotic cultivars. The dominating fatty acids found in analyzed EVOOs were oleic (65-72%), linoleic (10.61-18.33%) and palmitic acids (12-16%). The tocopherols α, (β+γ) and δ contents showed a great diversity which ranged from (60-408) mg/kg while, total phenol concentration ranged from (200-370) mg/kg. The analyses of phenolic compounds revealed the presence of phenolic acids, phenolic alcohols, secoiridoids, flavonoids, oleuropein and verbascosides. One-way ANOVA revealed significant differences (p < 0.05) regarding studied parameters. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to identify the main components and to classify samples into groups in terms of fatty acids and phenolic profiles. The first group (Frantoio, Moraiolo, Pendolino, Multi-varietal mixture) characterized by high amount of oleic acid and MUFAs/PUFAs ratio. The second group (Maurino and Leccino) correlates with SFAs and third (Ottobrattica, Coratina) with PUFAs. Based on the PCA of phenolic profile the studied cultivars were divided into two main groups. Morialo, Pendolino and Maurino correlated with (phenolic acids, hydroxytyrosol, flavonoids and secoiridoids). Frantoio, Ottobrattica, Coratina, multi-varietal and Leccino were correlated with oleuropein, tyrosol and ligstroside aglycon. The obtained data was compared with those obtained from same cultivars in their original and/or different growing area. Marked differences were observed in the composition of oleic, linoleic, palmitic acids, secoiridoids and total phenolic contents. These differences could be due to change in geographical location and climatical condition of Balochistan. The cultivar Moraiolo has shown best adaptation and preserved its biochemical composition among all studied cultivars.

Extraction, Analysis, and Antioxidant Activity Evaluation of Phenolic Compounds in Different Italian Extra-Virgin Olive Oils

The analysis of phenolic compounds in extra virgin olive oils was carried out by high-performance liquid chromatography utilizing photodiode array and mass spectrometry detectors. The chromatographic profile of thirty samples from four Italian Regions highlighted the presence of secoiridoids, phenolic alcohols, flavonoids, and phenolic acid classes. A similar qualitative profile was observed with some differences in peak area and fifteen compounds were tentatively identified. Quantitative analysis was performed by UV detection considering eight standard phenolic compounds. The chromatographic method, after optimization, was validated studying some parameters, e.g., intra-day and inter-day retention time precision, limit of detection, limit of quantification, and linearity. Recovery of the method was performed achieving good results (10 and 50 g·g^-1 with recovery of 72.9⁻92.1% (w/w) and 79.1⁻102.8% (w/w), respectively). In all samples secoiridoids were the main compounds ranging from 85 to more than 99% (w/w) of the total concentration of detected phenolic compounds while phenolic acids accounted for the lowest percentage (0.1⁻0.6%, w/w). Finally, total concentration of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity were determined with different chemical assays. A good and significant correlation among total phenolic compound concentration and antioxidant activity was observed. A significant different phenolic compound concentration and antioxidant activity was determined between samples from Puglia and Sicily. This was studied performing statistical analysis by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Bonferroni post-hoc test.

GC-MS olfactometric and LC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS characterization of key odorants and phenolic compounds in black dry-salted olives

BACKGROUND

Olives are processed in different ways depending on consumption habits, which vary between countries. Different de-bittering methods affect the aroma and aroma-active compounds of table olives. This study focused on analyzing the aroma and aroma-active compounds of black dry-salted olives using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-olfactometry (GC-MS-O) techniques.

RESULTS

Thirty-nine volatile compounds which they have a total concentration of 29 459 µg kg^-1 , were determined. Aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA) was used to determine key aroma compounds of table olives. Based on the flavor dilution (FD) factor, the most powerful aroma-active compounds in the sample were methyl-2-methyl butyrate (tropical, sweet; FD: 512) and (Z)-3-hexenol (green, flowery; FD: 256). Phenolic compounds in table olives were also analyzed by LC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS. A total of 20 main phenolic compounds were identified and the highest content of phenolic compound was luteolin-7-glucoside (306 mg kg^-1 ), followed by verbascoside (271 mg kg^-1 ), oleuropein (231 mg kg^-1 ), and hydroxytyrosol (3,4-DHPEA) (221 mg kg^-1 ).

CONCLUSION

Alcohols, carboxylic acids, and lactones were qualitatively and quantitatively the dominant volatiles in black dry-salted olives. Results indicated that esters and alcohols were the major aroma-active compounds. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.