Mass Spectrometry Based Profiling and Imaging of Various Ginsenosides from Panax ginseng Roots at Different Ages

Spatial metabolomics in mental disorders and traditional Chinese medicine: a review

Spatial metabolomics is an emerging technology that integrates mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) with metabolomics, offering a novel visual perspective for traditional metabolomics analysis. This technology enables in-depth analysis in three dimensions: qualitative, quantitative, and localization of metabolites. Spatial metabolomics precisely reflects the characteristics of metabolic network changes in metabolites within entire tissues or specific micro-regions. It provides a detailed understanding of the pharmacodynamic material basis and mechanisms of action. These capabilities suggest that spatial metabolomics can offer significant technical support for studying the complex pathophysiology of mental disorders. Although the mechanisms underlying mental disorders have been reviewed multiple times, this paper provides a comprehensive comparison between traditional metabolomics and spatial metabolomics. It also summarizes the latest progress and challenges of applying spatial metabolomics to the study of mental disorders and traditional Chinese medicine.

Promising mass spectrometry imaging: exploring microscale insights in food

This review focused on mass spectrometry imaging (MSI), a powerful tool in food analysis, covering its ion source schemes and procedures and their applications in food quality, safety, and nutrition to provide detailed insights into these aspects. The review presented a detailed introduction to both commonly used and emerging ionization sources, including nanoparticle laser desorption/ionization (NPs-LDI), air flow-assisted ionization (AFAI), desorption ionization with through-hole alumina membrane (DIUTHAME), plasma-assisted laser desorption ionization (PALDI), and low-temperature plasma (LTP). In the MSI process, particular emphasis was placed on quantitative MSI (QMSI) and super-resolution algorithms. These two aspects synergistically enhanced MSI's analytical capabilities: QMSI enabled accurate relative and absolute quantification, providing reliable data for composition analysis, while super-resolution algorithms improved molecular spatial imaging resolution, facilitating biomarker and trace substance detection. MSI outperformed conventional methods in comprehensively exploring food functional factors, biomarker discovery, and monitoring processing/storage effects by discerning molecular species and their spatial distributions. However, challenges such as immature techniques, complex data processing, non-standardized instruments, and high costs existed. Future trends in instrument enhancement, multispectral integration, and data analysis improvement were expected to deepen our understanding of food chemistry and safety, highlighting MSI's revolutionary potential in food analysis and research.

Exploring natural product biosynthesis in plants with mass spectrometry imaging

The biosynthesis of natural products (NPs) is a complex dynamic spatial and temporal process that requires the collaboration of multiple disciplines to explore the underlying mechanisms. Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) is a powerful technique for studying NPs due to its high molecular coverage and sensitivity without the need for labeling. To date, many analysts still use MSI primarily for visualizing the distribution of NPs in heterogeneous tissues, although studies have proved that it can provide crucial insights into the specialized spatial metabolic process of NPs. In this review we strive to bring awareness of the importance of MSI, and we advocate further exploitation of the spatial information obtained from MSI to establish metabolite-gene expression relationships.

Exploring the Potential Therapeutic Approach Using Ginsenosides for the Management of Neurodegenerative Disorders

There is a need for an efficient and long-lasting treatment due to the population's increasing prevalence of neurodegenerative disorders. In an effort to generate fresh ideas and create novel therapeutic medications, scientists have recently started to investigate the biological functions of compounds derived from plants and herbs. Ginseng, famous Chinese herbal medicine, has therapeutic value by virtue of its compounds ginsenosides or panaxosides, which are triterpene saponins and steroid glycosides. Research revealed positive impacts on ameliorating various disease conditions and found it as a possible drug candidate. Several neuroprotection mechanisms followed by this compound are inhibition of cell apoptosis, oxidative stress, inflammatory, and tumor activity. It has been demonstrated that controlling these mechanisms enhances cognitive performance and safeguards the brain against neurodegenerative disorders. The main objective of this review is to give a description of the most recent studies on ginsenoside's possible therapeutic application in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Using organic compounds like ginseng and its various components may create new avenues for innovative treatment approaches development for neurological diseases. However, further research is necessary to confirm the stability and effectiveness of ginsenosides for neurodegenerative disease.

Recent trends in ginseng research

Ginseng, the dried root of Panax ginseng, contains ginsenosides and has long been used in Korea, China, and Japan to treat various symptoms. Many studies on the utility of ginseng have been conducted and in this paper we investigate recent trends in ginseng research. P. ginseng studies were collected from scientific databases (PubMed, Web of Science, and SciFindern) using the keywords "Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer", "ginsenosides", "genetic diversity", "biosynthesis", "cultivation", and "pharmacology". We identified 1208 studies up to and including September 2023: 549 studies on pharmacology, 262 studies on chemical components, 131 studies on molecular biology, 58 studies on cultivation, 71 studies on tissue culture, 28 studies on clinical trials, 123 reviews, and 49 studies in other fields. Many researchers focused on the characteristic ginseng component ginsenoside to elucidate the mechanism of ginseng's pharmacological action, the relationship between component patterns and cultivation areas and conditions, and gene expression.

Mass spectrometry-based ginsenoside profiling: Recent applications, limitations, and perspectives

Ginseng, the roots of Panax species, is an important medicinal herb used as a tonic. As ginsenosides are key bioactive components of ginseng, holistic chemical profiling of them has provided many insights into understanding ginseng. Mass spectrometry has been a major methodology for profiling, which has been applied to realize numerous goals in ginseng research, such as the discrimination of different species, geographical origins, and ages, and the monitoring of processing and biotransformation. This review summarizes the various applications of ginsenoside profiling in ginseng research over the last three decades that have contributed to expanding our understanding of ginseng. However, we also note that most of the studies overlooked a crucial factor that influences the levels of ginsenosides: genetic variation. To highlight the effects of genetic variation on the chemical contents, we present our results of untargeted and targeted ginsenoside profiling of different genotypes cultivated under identical conditions, in addition to data regarding genome-level genetic diversity. Additionally, we analyze the other limitations of previous studies, such as imperfect variable control, deficient metadata, and lack of additional effort to validate causation. We conclude that the values of ginsenoside profiling studies can be enhanced by overcoming such limitations, as well as by integrating with other -omics techniques.

Genetic and molecular dissection of ginseng (Panax ginseng Mey.) germplasm using high-density genic SNP markers, secondary metabolites, and gene expressions

Genetic and molecular knowledge of a species is crucial to its gene discovery and enhanced breeding. Here, we report the genetic and molecular dissection of ginseng, an important herb for healthy food and medicine. A mini-core collection consisting of 344 cultivars and landraces was developed for ginseng that represents the genetic variation of ginseng existing in its origin and diversity center. We sequenced the transcriptomes of all 344 cultivars and landraces; identified over 1.5 million genic SNPs, thereby revealing the genic diversity of ginseng; and analyzed them with 26,600 high-quality genic SNPs or a selection of them. Ginseng had a wide molecular diversity and was clustered into three subpopulations. Analysis of 16 ginsenosides, the major bioactive components for healthy food and medicine, showed that ginseng had a wide variation in the contents of all 16 ginsenosides and an extensive correlation of their contents, suggesting that they are synthesized through a single or multiple correlated pathways. Furthermore, we pair-wisely examined the relationships between the cultivars and landraces, revealing their relationships in gene expression, gene variation, and ginsenoside biosynthesis. These results provide new knowledge and new genetic and genic resources for advanced research and breeding of ginseng and related species.

An online derivatization strategy targeting carbon-carbon double bonds by laser-ablation carbon fiber ionization mass spectrometry imaging: Unraveling the spatial characteristic in mountain-cultivated ginseng and garden-cultivated ginseng with different ages

Serving as a world-renowned tonic, ginseng contains various types of bioactive metabolites. The comprehensive profiling of these metabolites may help explore the nutritional value of ginseng. Due to high variety in chemical structures, simultaneous monitoring of these metabolites remains a challenge. Herein, a high-throughput and high-selectivity online derivatization mass spectrometry imaging strategy targeting CC was developed. As a widely existed chemical group, CC acts like a bridge connecting different kinds of metabolites. [d₀]/[d₁₀]-Bis(pyridine) iodine tetrafluoroboride reagent was chosen for the derivatization of CC, the detection sensitivity of which increased about 3 magnitudes after derivatization. Assisted by laser ablation carbon fiber ionization mass spectrometry, the spatial distribution of bioactive metabolites in mountain-cultivated and garden-cultivated ginseng were visualized. The correlation heatmap results revealed that metabolites in mountain-cultivated ginseng hold higher correlation than those in garden-cultivated ginseng. The proposed method showed potential in providing comprehensive information on the nutrient content of foods.

Analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry: An update for 2017-2018

This review is the tenth update of the original article published in 1999 on the application of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI) mass spectrometry to the analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates and brings coverage of the literature to the end of 2018. Also included are papers that describe methods appropriate to glycan and glycoprotein analysis by MALDI, such as sample preparation techniques, even though the ionization method is not MALDI. Topics covered in the first part of the review include general aspects such as theory of the MALDI process, new methods, matrices, derivatization, MALDI imaging, fragmentation and the use of arrays. The second part of the review is devoted to applications to various structural types such as oligo- and poly-saccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, glycosides, and biopharmaceuticals. Most of the applications are presented in tabular form. The third part of the review covers medical and industrial applications of the technique, studies of enzyme reactions, and applications to chemical synthesis. The reported work shows increasing use of combined new techniques such as ion mobility and highlights the impact that MALDI imaging is having across a range of diciplines. MALDI is still an ideal technique for carbohydrate analysis and advancements in the technique and the range of applications continue steady progress.

Opposite trends of glycosides and alkaloids in Dendrobium nobile of different age based on UPLC-Q/TOF-MS combined with multivariate statistical analyses

INTRODUCTION

Alkaloids and glycosides are the active ingredients of the herb Dendrobium nobile, which is used in traditional Chinese medicine. The pharmacological effects of alkaloids include neuroprotective effects and regulatory effects on glucose and lipid metabolism, while glycosides improve the immune system. The pharmacological activities of the above chemical components are significantly different. In practice, the stems of 3-year-old D. nobile are usually used as the main source of Dendrobii Caulis. However, it has not been reported whether this harvesting time is appropriate.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to compare the chemical characteristics of D. nobile in different growth years (1-3 years).

METHODS

In this study, ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q/TOF-MS) was employed to analyze the constituents of D. nobile. The relative abundance of each constituent was analyzed with multivariate statistical analyses to screen the characteristic constituents that contributed to the characterization and classification of D. nobile. Dendrobine, a component of D. nobile that is used for quality control according to the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, was assayed by gas chromatography.

RESULTS

As a result, 34 characteristic constituents (VIP > 2) were identified or tentatively identified as alkaloids and glycosides based on MS/MS data. Moreover, the content of alkaloids decreased over time, whereas the content of glycosides showed the opposite trend. The absolute quantification of dendrobine was consistent with the metabolomics results.

CONCLUSION

Our findings provide valuable information to optimize the harvest period and a reference for the clinical application of D. nobile.

Exploratory Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Panax Genus Plant Ingestion Evaluation in Exercise Endurance

Background: Many studies that use food containing Panax genus plants (PGPs) have been conducted but most of them have not mentioned the effective compounds ginsenosides and their composition. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of time to exhaustion as an index of exercise endurance with ingestion of PGPs or ginsenosides to reveal their effects. Methods: We performed a systematic review with a comprehensive and structured literature search using seven literature databases, four clinical trial databases, and three general web search engines during 15–22 March 2021. A random-effects model was applied to calculate the standardized mean difference (SMD) and 95% confidence interval (CI) as the difference between the mean in the treatment and placebo groups. We evaluated the risk of bias of individual studies along with the risk of bias tool in the Cochrane handbook. This study was funded by Maruzen Pharmaceuticals Co., Ltd. (Hiroshima, Japan). The protocol for this study was registered with the UMIN-CTR (No. UMIN000043341). Results: Five studies met the inclusion criteria. The number of total participants was 90, with 59 in the ingestion-PGPs group and 64 in the control group, because three studies were crossover-design trials. We found that ingestion of PGPs or ginsenosides significantly improved exercise endurance (SMD [95% CI]: 0.58 [0.22–0.95], I² = 0%). It was suggested that ginsenoside Rg₁ (Rg₁) and PGPs extract containing Rg₁ were significantly effective in improving exercise endurance (SMD [95% CI]: 0.70 [0.14–1.27], I² = 30%) by additional analysis. Conclusions: This systematic review suggests that the ingestion of PGPs or ginsenosides, especially Rg₁, is effective in improving exercise endurance in healthy adults. However, further high-quality randomized controlled trials are required because imprecision and publication bias cannot be ignored in this systematic review.

Advanced applications of mass spectrometry imaging technology in quality control and safety assessments of traditional Chinese medicines

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) have made great contributions to the prevention and treatment of human diseases in China, and especially in cases of COVID-19. However, due to quality problems, the lack of standards, and the diversity of dosage forms, adverse reactions to TCMs often occur. Moreover, the composition of TCMs makes them extremely challenging to extract and isolate, complicating studies of toxicity mechanisms.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The aim of this paper is therefore to summarize the advanced applications of mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) technology in the quality control, safety evaluations, and determination of toxicity mechanisms of TCMs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Relevant studies from the literature have been collected from scientific databases, such as "PubMed", "Scifinder", "Elsevier", "Google Scholar" using the keywords "MSI", "traditional Chinese medicines", "quality control", "metabolomics", and "mechanism".

RESULTS

MSI is a new analytical imaging technology that can detect and image the metabolic changes of multiple components of TCMs in plants and animals in a high throughput manner. Compared to other chemical analysis methods, such as liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), this method does not require the complex extraction and separation of TCMs, and is fast, has high sensitivity, is label-free, and can be performed in high-throughput. Combined with chemometrics methods, MSI can be quickly and easily used for quality screening of TCMs. In addition, this technology can be used to further focus on potential biomarkers and explore the therapeutic/toxic mechanisms of TCMs.

CONCLUSIONS

As a new type of analysis method, MSI has unique advantages to metabolic analysis, quality control, and mechanisms of action explorations of TCMs, and contributes to the establishment of quality standards to explore the safety and toxicology of TCMs.

Advances and challenges in ginseng research from 2011 to 2020: the phytochemistry, quality control, metabolism, and biosynthesis

Covering: 2011 to the end of 2020Panax species (Araliaceae), particularly P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius, and P. notoginseng, have a long history of medicinal use because of their remarkable tonifying effects, and currently serve as crucial sources for various healthcare products, functional foods, and cosmetics, aside from their vast clinical preparations. The huge market demand on a global scale prompts the continuous prosperity in ginseng research concerning the discovery of new compounds, precise quality control, ADME (absorption/disposition/metabolism/excretion), and biosynthesis pathways. Benefitting from the ongoing rapid development of analytical technologies, e.g. multi-dimensional chromatography (MDC), personalized mass spectrometry (MS) scan strategies, and multi-omics, highly recognized progress has been made in driving ginseng analysis towards "systematicness, integrity, personalization, and intelligentization". Herein, we review the advances in the phytochemistry, quality control, metabolism, and biosynthesis pathway of ginseng over the past decade (2011-2020), with 410 citations. Emphasis is placed on the introduction of new compounds isolated (saponins and polysaccharides), and the emerging novel analytical technologies and analytical strategies that favor ginseng's authentic use and global consumption. Perspectives on the challenges and future trends in ginseng analysis are also presented.

Whitening and inhibiting NF-κB-mediated inflammation properties of the biotransformed green ginseng berry of new cultivar K1, ginsenoside Rg2 enriched, on B16 and LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells

Background

Main bioactive constituents and pharmacological functions of ripened red ginseng berry (Panax ginseng Meyer) have been frequently reported. Yet, the research gap targeting the beneficial activities of transformed green ginseng berries has not reported elsewhere.

Methods

Ginsenosides of new green berry cultivar K-1 (GK-1) were identified by HPLC-QTOF/MS. Ginsenosides bioconversion in GK-1 by bgp1 enzyme was confirmed with HPLC and TLC. Then, mechanisms of GK-1 and β-glucosidase (bgp1) biotransformed GK-1 (BGK-1) were determined by Quantitative Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction and Western blot.

Results

GK-1 possesses highest ginsenosides especially ginsenoside-Re amongst seven ginseng cultivars including (Chunpoong, Huangsuk, Kumpoong, K-1, Honkaejong, Gopoong, and Yunpoong). Ginseng root’s biomass is not affected with the harvest of GK-1 at 3 weeks after flowering period. Then, Re is bio-converted into a promising pharmaceutical effect of Rg2 via bgp1. According to the results of cell assays, BGK-1 shows decrease of tyrosinase and melanin content in α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone challenged-murine melanoma B16 cells. BGK-1 which is comparatively more effective than GK-1 extract shows significant suppression of the nuclear factor (NF)-κB activation and inflammatory target genes, in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells.

Conclusion

These results reported effective whitening and anti-inflammatory of BGK-1 as compared to GK-1.

An Integrated Mutually Oriented "Chemical Profiling-Pharmaceutical Effect" Strategy for Screening Discriminating Markers of Underlying Hepatoprotective Effects to Distinguish Garden-Cultivated from Mountain-Cultivated Ginseng

Garden-cultivated Ginseng (GG) and mountain-cultivated Ginseng (MG) both belong to Panax Ginseng C. A. Meyer. However, the effective substances which can be used to distinguish GG from MG remain obscure. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to screen for discriminating markers that can assist in the correct identification of GG and MG. HPLC Q-TOF/MS and various chemometrics methods were used to analyze the chemical profiles of 13 batches of Ginseng and to explore the characteristic constituents of both GG and MG. The hepatocyte-protecting effects of GG and MG were investigated through a paclitaxel-induced liver injury model. Through a combination of correlation analysis and bioinformatic techniques, markers for differentiation between GG and MG were ascertained. A total of 40 and 41 compounds were identified in GG and MG, respectively, and 15 characteristic ingredients contributed significantly to the discrimination of GG from MG. Correlation analysis and network pharmacology were applied and ginsenosides Rg1, Re, Rb1, Rc, Rb2, and Rg3 were found to be discriminating markers of GG and MG. Six markers for the identification of GG and MG were screened out by a step-wise mutually oriented "chemical profiling-pharmaceutical effect" correlation strategy, which is of great significance for future quality assessment of Ginseng products.

Chemical Profile Assessment and Potential Bioactive Component Screening of a Chinese Patent Herbal Drug Yi-Shen-Hua-Shi Granule

Yi-Shen-Hua-Shi (YSHS) Granule is a well-known patented herbal drug for treating chronic glomerulonephritis (CGN) in China. Its chemical compositions and anti-CGN components are not fully understood. This study aimed to establish the chemical profile and to identify the anti-CGN components of YSHS Granule. For these purposes, a HPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS method was developed. A total of 105 peaks were detected in the mass spectrum of the Granule. Of these, 99 compounds were tentatively identified as terpenoids, flavonoids, coumarins, alkaloids, phenols, and other types of compounds, and 15 were further identified with reference substances. To screen bioactive compounds, a cell membrane immobilized chromatography (CMIC) method was used. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-challenged rat glomerular mesangial cells (HBZY-1) were incubated with YSHS Granule (100 μg/mL), and the binding components to the cell membrane were extracted and analyzed using the established HPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS method. Seven potential bioactive components that bound to HBZY-1 cell membranes were detected and identified as calycosin-7- O-β-D-glucoside, 6-gingerol, naringin, ginsenoside Re, poncirin, liquiritigenin, and isoliquiritigenin. The outcomes of the present study provide a chemical basis for clinical use of the Granule in managing CGN, and provide quality control markers for the Granule’s production and use.

Comprehensive Investigation on Ginsenosides in Different Parts of a Garden-Cultivated Ginseng Root and Rhizome

Background: Ginseng is widely used as herb or food. Different parts of ginseng have diverse usages. However, the comprehensive analysis on the ginsenosides in different parts of ginseng root is scarce. Methods: An ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF/MS) combined with UNIFI informatics platform and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-charged aerosol detection (UHPLC-CAD) were employed to evaluate the different parts of cultivated ginseng root. Results: 105 ginsenosides including 16 new compounds were identified or tentatively characterized. 22 potential chemical markers were identified, 20, 17, and 19 for main root (MR) and fibrous root (FR), main root (MR) and branch root (BR), and main root (MR) and rhizome (RH), respectively. The relative contents of Re, Rb₁, 20(R)-Rh₁, Rd, and Rf were highest in FR. The relative content of Rg₁ was highest in RH. The total relative content of pharmacopoeia indicators Rg₁, Re, and Rb₁ was highest in FR. Conclusion: The differences among these parts were the compositions and relative contents of ginsenosides. Under our research conditions, the peak area ratio of Rg₁ and Re could distinguish the MR and FR samples. Fibrous roots showed rich ingredients and high ginsenosides contents which should be further utilized.

Effect of cultivation ages on anti-inflammatory activity of a new type of red ginseng

Ginseng has been widely applied in clinical practice, but the cultivation age cannot be ignored as it influences the quality of ginseng and its products. In this work, different cultivation ages of fresh ginseng (FG) from four to seven years were analysed by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS. Principal component analysis and supervised orthogonal partial least squared discrimination analysis, which belong to the normal method of multivariate statistical analysis, were applied to discover the characteristic components of FG at different cultivation ages. The components of new type of red ginseng (NRG) derived from FG at different cultivation ages were compared by HPLC analysis. The pharmacological anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated by ELISA and qPCR. The result showed that the characteristic components of both 6- and 7-year-old ginseng were ginsenoside Rb1, mal-ginsenoside Rb1, ginsenoside Rc, mal-ginsenoside Rc, mal-ginsenoside Rb1 isomer, and mal-ginsenoside Rb2. Moreover, the characteristic components of both 4- and 5-year-old ginseng were ADP-glucose and 3-hydroxyhexanoyl CoA. In addition, 6-year-old NRG has higher rare ginsenosides than 4-year-old NRG, which possesses great anti-inflammatory activity in vitro. The results reveal the ginsenoside transformation law of NRG processing and suggest that the cultivation age of FG influences the content of ginsenosides in NRG. Therefore, 6-year-old ginseng is more suitable for red ginseng processing and clinical use.

Application of Mass Spectrometry Imaging for Visualizing Food Components

Consuming food is essential for survival, maintaining health, and triggering positive emotions like pleasure. One of the factors that drive us toward such behavior is the presence of various compounds in foods. There are many methods to analyze these molecules in foods; however, it is difficult to analyze the spatial distribution of these compounds using conventional techniques, such as mass spectrometry combined with high-performance liquid chromatography or gas chromatography. Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) is a two-dimensional ionization technology that enables detection of compounds in tissue sections without extraction, purification, separation, or labeling. There are many methods for ionization of analytes, including secondary ion mass spectrometry, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization, and desorption electrospray ionization. Such MSI technologies can provide spatial information on the location of a specific analyte in food. The number of studies utilizing MSI technologies in food science has been increasing in the past decade. This review provides an overview of some of the recent applications of MSI in food science and related fields. In the future, MSI will become one of the most promising technologies for visualizing the distribution of food components and for identifying food-related factors by their molecular weights to improve quality, quality assurance, food safety, nutritional analysis, and to locate administered food factors.

Application of Identification and Evaluation Techniques for Ethnobotanical Medicinal Plant of Genus Panax: A Review

Genus Panax, as worldwide medicinal plants, has a medical history for thousands of years. Most of the entire genus are traditional ethnobotanical medicine in China, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam and Laos, which have given rise to international attention and use. This paper reviewed more than 210 articles and related books on the research of Panax medicinal plants and their Chinese patent medicines published in the last 30 years. The purpose was to review and summarize the species classification, geographical distribution, and ethnic minorities medicinal records of the genus Panax, and further to review the analytical tools and data analysis methods for the authentication and quality assessment of Panax medicinal materials and Chinese patent medicines. Five main technologies applied in the identification and evaluation of Panax have been introduced and summarized. Chromatography was the most widely used one. Further research and development of molecular identification technology had the potential to become a mainstream identification technology. In addition, some novel, controversial, and worthy methods including electronic noses, electronic eyes, and DNA barcoding were also introduced. At the same time, more than 80% of the researches were carried out by a combination of chemometric pattern-recognition technologies and multi-analysis technologies. All the technologies and methods applied can provide strong support and guarantee for the identification and evaluation of genus Panax, and also conduce to excellent reference value for the development and in-depth research of new technologies in Panax.

Ginseng Extract Ameliorates the Negative Physiological Effects of Heat Stress by Supporting Heat Shock Response and Improving Intestinal Barrier Integrity: Evidence from Studies with Heat-Stressed Caco-2 Cells, C. elegans and Growing Broilers

Climatic changes and heat stress have become a great challenge in the livestock industry, negatively affecting, in particular, poultry feed intake and intestinal barrier malfunction. Recently, phytogenic feed additives were applied to reduce heat stress effects on animal farming. Here, we investigated the effects of ginseng extract using various in vitro and in vivo experiments. Quantitative real-time PCR, transepithelial electrical resistance measurements and survival assays under heat stress conditions were carried out in various model systems, including Caco-2 cells, Caenorhabditis elegans and jejunum samples of broilers. Under heat stress conditions, ginseng treatment lowered the expression of HSPA1A (Caco-2) and the heat shock protein genes hsp-1 and hsp-16.2 (both in C. elegans), while all three of the tested genes encoding tight junction proteins, CLDN3, OCLN and CLDN1 (Caco-2), were upregulated. In addition, we observed prolonged survival under heat stress in Caenorhabditis elegans, and a better performance of growing ginseng-fed broilers by the increased gene expression of selected heat shock and tight junction proteins. The presence of ginseng extract resulted in a reduced decrease in transepithelial resistance under heat shock conditions. Finally, LC-MS analysis was performed to quantitate the most prominent ginsenosides in the extract used for this study, being Re, Rg1, Rc, Rb2 and Rd. In conclusion, ginseng extract was found to be a suitable feed additive in animal nutrition to reduce the negative physiological effects caused by heat stress.

The improved performance of MALDI-TOF MS on the analysis of herbal saponins by using DHB-GO composite matrix

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) is an excellent analytical technique for rapid analysis of a variety of molecules with straightforward sample pretreatment. The performance of MALDI-TOF MS is largely dependent on matrix type, and the development of novel MALDI matrices has aroused wide interest. Herein, we devoted to seek more robust MALDI matrix for herbal saponins than previous reported, and ginsenoside Rb1, Re, and notoginsenoside R1 were used as model saponins. At the beginning of the present study, 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (DHB) was found to provide the highest intensity for saponins in four conventional MALDI matrices, yet the heterogeneous cocrystallization of DHB with analytes made signal acquisition somewhat "hit and miss." Then, graphene oxide (GO) was proposed as an auxiliary matrix to improve the uniformity of DHB crystallization due to its monolayer structure and good dispersion, which could result in much better shot-to-shot and spot-to-spot reproducibility of saponin analysis. The satisfactory precision further demonstrated that minute quantities of GO (0.1 μg/spot) could greatly reduce the risk of instrument contamination caused by GO detachment from the MALDI target plate under vacuum. More importantly, the sensitivity and linearity of the standard curve for saponins were improved markedly by DHB-GO composite matrix. Finally, the application of detecting the Rb1 in complex biological sample was exploited in rat plasma and proved it applicable for pharmacokinetic study quickly. This work not only opens a new field for applications of DHB-GO in herbal saponin analysis but also offers new ideas for the development of composite matrices to improve MALDI MS performance.

Quality evaluation of Panax ginseng adventitious roots based on ginsenoside constituents, functional genes, and ferric-reducing antioxidant power

In the study, six adventitious root lines of Panax ginseng have been successfully established. HPLC-ESI-MS analysis showed that 20 ginsenosides were identified in root lines, notoginsenoside Fa and notoginsenoside R₂ were not found in AR lines. In AR lines, the highest accumulation of total ginsenosides was obtained in five-year main AR (24.87 mg/g). Principal component analysis classified root lines into three groups. Five-year ginseng was mostly similar with five-year main AR, five-year rootlet AR, and four-year rootlet AR in ginsenosides composition of group 1. Besides, gene expressions were consistent with the production of total ginsenosides, and correlation analysis revealed that total ginsenosides biosynthesis was significantly positively correlated with the gene expression of dammarenediol synthase. Five-year rootlet AR showed the highest activity on ferric-reducing antioxidant power test among samples. It provides a scientific evidence for the further exploitation and large-scale production of P. ginseng. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This study provides valuable information for the commercial scale culture of ginseng adventitious roots. This report combines morphology, ginsenoside composition and content, gene expression, and ferric-reducing antioxidant power test to evaluate the quality of P. ginseng adventitious root, and combined with principal component analysis to screen out the high yield and stable ginseng adventitious roots. It would be profitable to use adventitious root culture of P. ginseng instead of field cultivation.

Balancing sufficiency and impact in reporting standards for mass spectrometry imaging experiments

Reproducibility, or a lack thereof, is an increasingly important topic across many research fields. A key aspect of reproducibility is accurate reporting of both experiments and the resulting data. Herein, we propose a reporting guideline for mass spectrometry imaging (MSI). Previous standards have laid out guidelines sufficient to guarantee a certain quality of reporting; however, they set a high bar and as a consequence can be exhaustive and broad, thus limiting uptake.To help address this lack of uptake, we propose a reporting supplement-Minimum Information About a Mass Spectrometry Imaging Experiment (MIAMSIE)-and its abbreviated reporting standard version, MSIcheck. MIAMSIE is intended to improve author-driven reporting. It is intentionally not exhaustive, but is rather designed for extensibility and could therefore eventually become analogous to existing standards that aim to guarantee reporting quality. Conversely, its abbreviated form MSIcheck is intended as a diagnostic tool focused on key aspects in MSI reporting.We discuss how existing standards influenced MIAMSIE/MSIcheck and how these new approaches could positively impact reporting quality, followed by test implementation of both standards to demonstrate their use. For MIAMSIE, we report on author reviews of four articles and a dataset. For MSIcheck, we show a snapshot review of a one-month subset of the MSI literature that indicated issues with data provision and the reporting of both data analysis steps and calibration settings for MS systems. Although our contribution is MSI specific, we believe the underlying approach could be considered as a general strategy for improving scientific reporting.

Recent advances in matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI) for in situ analysis of endogenous molecules in plants

INTRODUCTION

Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) as a label-free and powerful imaging technique enables in situ evaluation of a tissue metabolome and/or proteome, becoming increasingly popular in the detection of plant endogenous molecules.

OBJECTIVE

The characterisation of structure and spatial information of endogenous molecules in plants are both very important aspects to better understand the physiological mechanism of plant organism.

METHODS

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI) is a commonly-used tissue imaging technique, which requires matrix to assist in situ detection of a variety of molecules on the surface of a tissue section. In previous studies, MALDI-MSI was mostly used for the detection of molecules from animal tissue sections, compared to plant samples due to cell structural limitations, such as plant cuticles, epicuticular waxes, and cell walls. Despite the enormous progress that has been made in tissue imaging, there is still a challenge for MALDI-MSI suitable for the imaging of endogenous compounds in plants.

RESULTS

This review summarises the recent advances in MALDI-MSI, focusing on the application of in situ detection of endogenous molecules in different plant organs, i.e. root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit, and seed.

CONCLUSION

Further improvements on instrumentation sensitivity, matrix selection, image processing and sample preparation will expand the application of MALDI-MSI in plant research.

Metabolic dynamics and physiological adaptation of Panax ginseng during development

The dynamics of metabolites from leaves to roots of Panax ginseng during development has revealed the tissue-specific and year-specific metabolic networks. Being an essential Oriental medicinal plant, ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is a slow-growing perennial herb-accumulating pharmaceutically active metabolites such as ginsenosides in roots during growth. However, little is known about how ginseng plants survive in the harsh environments such as winter cold and summer heat for a longer period and accumulates those active metabolites as the plant grows. To understand the metabolic kinetics in both source and sink organs such as leaves and roots of ginseng plant, respectively, and to assess the changes in ginsenosides biosynthesis during ginseng growth, we investigated the metabolic profiles from leaves and roots of 1-, 4-, and 6-year-old field-grown ginseng plants. Using an integrated non-targeted metabolomic approach, we identified in total 348 primary and secondary metabolites, which provided us for the first time a global metabolomic assessment of ginseng during growth, and morphogenesis. Strikingly, the osmoprotectants and oxidized chemicals were highly accumulated in 4- and 6-year-old ginseng leaves suggested that ginseng develop a wide range of metabolic strategies to adapt unfavorable conditions as they mature. In 6-year-old plants, ginsenosides were decreased in leaves but increased in roots up to 1.2- to sixfold, supporting the view that there is a long-distance transport of ginsenosides from leaves to roots as ginseng plants mature. Our findings provide insights into the metabolic kinetics during the development of ginseng plant and this could complement the pharmacological importance of ginseng and its compounds according to their age.

Comprehensive Profiling and Quantification of Ginsenosides in the Root, Stem, Leaf, and Berry of Panax ginseng by UPLC-QTOF/MS

The effective production and usage of ginsenosides, given their distinct pharmacological effects, are receiving increasing amounts of attention. As the ginsenosides content differs in different parts of Panax ginseng, we wanted to assess and compare the ginsenosides content in the ginseng roots, leave, stems, and berries. To extract the ginsenosides, 70% (v/v) methanol was used. The optimal ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF/MS) method was used to profile various ginsenosides from the different parts of P. ginseng. The datasets were then subjected to multivariate analysis including principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA). A UPLC-QTOF/MS method with an in-house library was constructed to profile 58 ginsenosides. With this method, a total of 39 ginsenosides were successfully identified and quantified in the ginseng roots, leave, stem, and berries. PCA and HCA characterized the different ginsenosides compositions from the different parts. The quantitative ginsenoside contents were also characterized from each plant part. The results of this study indicate that the UPLC-QTOF/MS method can be an effective tool to characterize various ginsenosides from the different parts of P. ginseng.