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Laketa D, Lavrnja I. Extracellular Purine Metabolism-Potential Target in Multiple Sclerosis. Mol Neurobiol 2024:10.1007/s12035-024-04104-9. [PMID: 38499905 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-024-04104-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
The purinergic signaling system comprises a complex network of extracellular purines and purine-metabolizing ectoenzymes, nucleotide and nucleoside receptors, ATP release channels, and nucleoside transporters. Because of its immunomodulatory function, this system is critically involved in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) and its best-characterized animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). MS is a chronic neuroinflammatory demyelinating and neurodegenerative disease with autoimmune etiology and great heterogeneity, mostly affecting young adults and leading to permanent disability. In MS/EAE, alterations were detected in almost all components of the purinergic signaling system in both peripheral immune cells and central nervous system (CNS) glial cells, which play an important role in the pathogenesis of the disease. A decrease in extracellular ATP levels and an increase in its downstream metabolites, particularly adenosine and inosine, were frequently observed at MS, indicating a shift in metabolism toward an anti-inflammatory environment. Accordingly, upregulation of the major ectonucleotidase tandem CD39/CD73 was detected in the blood cells and CNS of relapsing-remitting MS patients. Based on the postulated role of A2A receptors in the transition from acute to chronic neuroinflammation, the association of variants of the adenosine deaminase gene with the severity of MS, and the beneficial effects of inosine treatment in EAE, the adenosinergic system emerged as a promising target in neuroinflammation. More recently, several publications have identified ADP-dependent P2Y12 receptors and the major extracellular ADP producing enzyme nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 2 (NTPDase2) as novel potential targets in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danijela Laketa
- Department of General Physiology and Biophysics, Institute for Physiology and Biochemistry "Ivan Djaja", Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 3, Belgrade, Republic of Serbia.
| | - Irena Lavrnja
- Institute for Biological Research, Sinisa Stankovic" - National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Bulevar despota Stefana 142, Belgrade, Republic of Serbia
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2
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Xu J, Huang P, Bie B, Dai Y, Ben-Salem S, Borjini N, Zhang L, Chen J, Olman M, Cheng J, Lin F. Complement Receptor C3aR1 Contributes to Paclitaxel-Induced Peripheral Neuropathic Pain in Mice and Rats. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2023; 211:1736-1746. [PMID: 37861348 PMCID: PMC10841827 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2300252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
Cancer chemotherapy-induced neuropathic pain is a devastating pain syndrome without effective therapies. We previously reported that rats deficient in complement C3, the central component of complement activation cascade, showed a reduced degree of paclitaxel-induced mechanical allodynia (PIMA), suggesting that complement is integrally involved in the pathogenesis of this model. However, the underlying mechanism was unclear. Complement activation leads to the production of C3a, which mediates inflammation through its receptor C3aR1. In this article, we report that the administration of paclitaxel induced a significantly higher expression level of C3aR1 on dorsal root ganglion (DRG) macrophages and expansion of these macrophages in DRGs in wild-type (WT) compared with in C3aR1 knockout (KO) mice. We also found that paclitaxel induced less severe PIMA, along with a reduced DRG expression of transient receptor potential channels of the vanilloid subtype 4 (TRPV4), an essential mediator for PIMA, in C3aR1 KO than in WT mice. Treating WT mice or rats with a C3aR1 antagonist markedly attenuated PIMA in association with downregulated DRG TRPV4 expression, reduced DRG macrophages expansion, suppressed DRG neuron hyperexcitability, and alleviated peripheral intraepidermal nerve fiber loss. Administration of C3aR1 antagonist to TRPV4 KO mice further protected them from PIMA. These results suggest that complement regulates PIMA development through C3aR1 to upregulate TRPV4 on DRG neurons and promote DRG macrophage expansion. Targeting C3aR1 could be a novel therapeutic approach to alleviate this debilitating pain syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jijun Xu
- Department of Pain Management, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, 9500 Euclid Ave., Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Ping Huang
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, 9500 Euclid Ave., Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Bihua Bie
- Department of Pain Management, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Yang Dai
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, 9500 Euclid Ave., Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Salma Ben-Salem
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, 9500 Euclid Ave., Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Nozha Borjini
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, 9500 Euclid Ave., Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Lingjun Zhang
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, 9500 Euclid Ave., Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Jin Chen
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, 9500 Euclid Ave., Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Mitchell Olman
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, 9500 Euclid Ave., Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Jianguo Cheng
- Department of Pain Management, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
- Department of Neurosciences, 9500 Euclid Ave., Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Feng Lin
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, 9500 Euclid Ave., Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
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Radandish M, Khalilian P, Esmaeil N. The Role of Distinct Subsets of Macrophages in the Pathogenesis of MS and the Impact of Different Therapeutic Agents on These Populations. Front Immunol 2021; 12:667705. [PMID: 34489926 PMCID: PMC8417824 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.667705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/31/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating inflammatory disorder of the central nervous system (CNS). Besides the vital role of T cells, other immune cells, including B cells, innate immune cells, and macrophages (MФs), also play a critical role in MS pathogenesis. Tissue-resident MФs in the brain’s parenchyma, known as microglia and monocyte-derived MФs, enter into the CNS following alterations in CNS homeostasis that induce inflammatory responses in MS. Although the neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory actions of monocyte-derived MФs and resident MФs are required to maintain CNS tolerance, they can release inflammatory cytokines and reactivate primed T cells during neuroinflammation. In the CNS of MS patients, elevated myeloid cells and activated MФs have been found and associated with demyelination and axonal loss. Thus, according to the role of MФs in neuroinflammation, they have attracted attention as a therapeutic target. Also, due to their different origin, location, and turnover, other strategies may require to target the various myeloid cell populations. Here we review the role of distinct subsets of MФs in the pathogenesis of MS and different therapeutic agents that target these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maedeh Radandish
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Parvin Khalilian
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Nafiseh Esmaeil
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.,Environment Research Center, Research Institute for Primordial Prevention of Non-Communicable Disease, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
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Maurya SK, Bhattacharya N, Mishra S, Bhattacharya A, Banerjee P, Senapati S, Mishra R. Microglia Specific Drug Targeting Using Natural Products for the Regulation of Redox Imbalance in Neurodegeneration. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:654489. [PMID: 33927630 PMCID: PMC8076853 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.654489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia, a type of innate immune cell of the brain, regulates neurogenesis, immunological surveillance, redox imbalance, cognitive and behavioral changes under normal and pathological conditions like Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Multiple sclerosis and traumatic brain injury. Microglia produces a wide variety of cytokines to maintain homeostasis. It also participates in synaptic pruning and regulation of neurons overproduction by phagocytosis of neural precursor cells. The phenotypes of microglia are regulated by the local microenvironment of neurons and astrocytes via interaction with both soluble and membrane-bound mediators. In case of neuron degeneration as observed in acute or chronic neurodegenerative diseases, microglia gets released from the inhibitory effect of neurons and astrocytes, showing activated phenotype either of its dual function. Microglia shows neuroprotective effect by secreting growths factors to heal neurons and clears cell debris through phagocytosis in case of a moderate stimulus. But the same microglia starts releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α, IFN-γ, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and nitric oxide (NO), increasing neuroinflammation and redox imbalance in the brain under chronic signals. Therefore, pharmacological targeting of microglia would be a promising strategy in the regulation of neuroinflammation, redox imbalance and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases. Some studies present potentials of natural products like curcumin, resveratrol, cannabidiol, ginsenosides, flavonoids and sulforaphane to suppress activation of microglia. These natural products have also been proposed as effective therapeutics to regulate the progression of neurodegenerative diseases. The present review article intends to explain the molecular mechanisms and functions of microglia and molecular dynamics of microglia specific genes and proteins like Iba1 and Tmem119 in neurodegeneration. The possible interventions by curcumin, resveratrol, cannabidiol, ginsenosides, flavonoids and sulforaphane on microglia specific protein Iba1 suggest possibility of natural products mediated regulation of microglia phenotypes and its functions to control redox imbalance and neuroinflammation in management of Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Multiple Sclerosis for microglia-mediated therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Neetu Bhattacharya
- Department of Zoology, Dyal Singh College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Suman Mishra
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biotechnology, SGPGI, Lucknow, India
| | - Amit Bhattacharya
- Department of Zoology, Ramjas College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Pratibha Banerjee
- Immunogenomics Laboratory, Department of Human Genetics & Molecular Medicine, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, India
| | - Sabyasachi Senapati
- Immunogenomics Laboratory, Department of Human Genetics & Molecular Medicine, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, India
| | - Rajnikant Mishra
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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Mimouna S, Rollins DA, Shibu G, Tharmalingam B, Deochand DK, Chen X, Oliver D, Chinenov Y, Rogatsky I. Transcription cofactor GRIP1 differentially affects myeloid cell-driven neuroinflammation and response to IFN-β therapy. J Exp Med 2021; 218:e20192386. [PMID: 33045064 PMCID: PMC7555412 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20192386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages (MФ) and microglia (MG) are critical in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) and its mouse model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Glucocorticoids (GCs) and interferon β (IFN-β) are frontline treatments for MS, and disrupting each pathway in mice aggravates EAE. Glucocorticoid receptor-interacting protein 1 (GRIP1) facilitates both GR and type I IFN transcriptional actions; hence, we evaluated the role of GRIP1 in neuroinflammation. Surprisingly, myeloid cell-specific loss of GRIP1 dramatically reduced EAE severity, immune cell infiltration of the CNS, and MG activation and demyelination specifically during the neuroinflammatory phase of the disease, yet also blunted therapeutic properties of IFN-β. MФ/MG transcriptome analyses at the bulk and single-cell levels revealed that GRIP1 deletion attenuated nuclear receptor, inflammatory and, interestingly, type I IFN pathways and promoted the persistence of a homeostatic MG signature. Together, these results uncover the multifaceted function of type I IFN in MS/EAE pathogenesis and therapy, and an unexpectedly permissive role of myeloid cell GRIP1 in neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanda Mimouna
- The David Z. Rosensweig Genomics Center, Hospital for Special Surgery Research Institute, New York, NY
| | - David A. Rollins
- The David Z. Rosensweig Genomics Center, Hospital for Special Surgery Research Institute, New York, NY
- Graduate Program in Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York, NY
| | - Gayathri Shibu
- The David Z. Rosensweig Genomics Center, Hospital for Special Surgery Research Institute, New York, NY
- Graduate Program in Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York, NY
| | - Bowranigan Tharmalingam
- The David Z. Rosensweig Genomics Center, Hospital for Special Surgery Research Institute, New York, NY
| | - Dinesh K. Deochand
- The David Z. Rosensweig Genomics Center, Hospital for Special Surgery Research Institute, New York, NY
| | - Xi Chen
- The David Z. Rosensweig Genomics Center, Hospital for Special Surgery Research Institute, New York, NY
- Graduate Program in Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York, NY
| | - David Oliver
- The David Z. Rosensweig Genomics Center, Hospital for Special Surgery Research Institute, New York, NY
| | - Yurii Chinenov
- The David Z. Rosensweig Genomics Center, Hospital for Special Surgery Research Institute, New York, NY
| | - Inez Rogatsky
- The David Z. Rosensweig Genomics Center, Hospital for Special Surgery Research Institute, New York, NY
- Graduate Program in Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York, NY
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6
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Quarta A, Berneman Z, Ponsaerts P. Functional consequences of a close encounter between microglia and brain-infiltrating monocytes during CNS pathology and repair. J Leukoc Biol 2020; 110:89-106. [PMID: 33155726 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.3ru0820-536r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is recognized as an important factor contributing to the development and progression of several central nervous system (CNS) disorders. Upon CNS trauma or disease, parenchymal microglia highly proliferate and accumulate in and around the lesion site. In addition, blood-derived monocytes can infiltrate the inflamed CNS in response to cellular damage and/or a compromised blood-brain barrier. Both microglia and infiltrating monocytes are characterized by multiple functional states and can either display highly proinflammatory properties or promote resolution of inflammation and tissue regeneration. Despite sharing some basic immunologic functions, microglia and monocytes display many distinctive features, which ultimately define their contribution to neuropathology. Understanding how the innate immune system participates to brain disease is imperative to identify novel treatment options for CNS inflammatory disorders. In this context, existing and newly developed in vitro platforms for disease modeling are fundamental tools to investigate and modulate microglia and monocyte immune functions within a specific neuropathologic context. In this review, we first briefly summarize the current knowledge on microglia and monocyte ontogenesis, as well as their complex and interconnected contributions to the development of various CNS pathologies. Following the well-recognized concept that both microglia and monocytes can either exert neuroprotective functions or exacerbate tissue damage, we provide a comprehensive overview of cellular models currently available for in vitro study of neuroinflammatory responses. In this context, we highlight how simplified single-cell models may not always correctly recapitulate in vivo biology, hence future research should move toward novel models with higher and multicellular complexity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Quarta
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Zwi Berneman
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Peter Ponsaerts
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
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Carrillo GL, Ballard VA, Glausen T, Boone Z, Teamer J, Hinkson CL, Wohlfert EA, Blader IJ, Fox MA. Toxoplasma infection induces microglia-neuron contact and the loss of perisomatic inhibitory synapses. Glia 2020; 68:1968-1986. [PMID: 32157745 PMCID: PMC7423646 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Infection and inflammation within the brain induces changes in neuronal connectivity and function. The intracellular protozoan parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, is one pathogen that infects the brain and can cause encephalitis and seizures. Persistent infection by this parasite is also associated with behavioral alterations and an increased risk for developing psychiatric illness, including schizophrenia. Current evidence from studies in humans and mouse models suggest that both seizures and schizophrenia result from a loss or dysfunction of inhibitory synapses. In line with this, we recently reported that persistent T. gondii infection alters the distribution of glutamic acid decarboxylase 67 (GAD67), an enzyme that catalyzes GABA synthesis in inhibitory synapses. These changes could reflect a redistribution of presynaptic machinery in inhibitory neurons or a loss of inhibitory nerve terminals. To directly assess the latter possibility, we employed serial block face scanning electron microscopy (SBFSEM) and quantified inhibitory perisomatic synapses in neocortex and hippocampus following parasitic infection. Not only did persistent infection lead to a significant loss of perisomatic synapses, it induced the ensheathment of neuronal somata by myeloid-derived cells. Immunohistochemical, genetic, and ultrastructural analyses revealed that these myeloid-derived cells included activated microglia. Finally, ultrastructural analysis identified myeloid-derived cells enveloping perisomatic nerve terminals, suggesting they may actively displace or phagocytose synaptic elements. Thus, these results suggest that activated microglia contribute to perisomatic inhibitory synapse loss following parasitic infection and offer a novel mechanism as to how persistent T. gondii infection may contribute to both seizures and psychiatric illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela L. Carrillo
- Center for Neurobiology Research, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, 2 Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA 24016
- Graduate Program in Translational Biology, Medicine, and Health, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - Valerie A. Ballard
- Center for Neurobiology Research, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, 2 Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA 24016
- Roanoke Valley Governor’s School, Roanoke VA 24015
| | - Taylor Glausen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo NY 14260
| | - Zack Boone
- Center for Neurobiology Research, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, 2 Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA 24016
- School of Neuroscience, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - Joseph Teamer
- Center for Neurobiology Research, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, 2 Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA 24016
- FBRI neuroSURF Program, Roanoke, VA 24016
| | - Cyrus L. Hinkson
- Center for Neurobiology Research, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, 2 Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA 24016
- Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, VA 24016
| | | | - Ira J. Blader
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo NY 14260
| | - Michael A. Fox
- Center for Neurobiology Research, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, 2 Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA 24016
- School of Neuroscience, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
- Department of Pediatrics, Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, VA 24016
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Quarta A, Berneman Z, Ponsaerts P. Neuroprotective modulation of microglia effector functions following priming with interleukin 4 and 13: current limitations in understanding their mode-of-action. Brain Behav Immun 2020; 88:856-866. [PMID: 32224056 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years the long-standing theory of microglia's properties for dual polarization towards a pro- or anti-inflammatory phenotype has been deeply challenged. Furthermore, the elucidation of microglia ontogenesis exposed intrinsic differences between microglia and peripheral myeloid cells, thereby further underscoring the need to re-evaluate microglia-specific activation behavior, especially within an inflamed central nervous system (CNS) environment. This review critically summarizes recent literature on the in vitro and in vivo response of murine microglia to the immune-modulatory cytokines interleukin 4 (IL4) and interleukin 13 (IL13), i.e. those driving the so-called anti-inflammatory phenotype. Here we highlight several pivotal factors that may influence experimental outcome and/or interpretation of in vitro and in vivo studies evaluating microglia's phenotypical and functional properties upon IL4/IL13 treatment. Finally, the current therapeutic relevance of IL4/IL13-induced microglia activation in both acute and chronic CNS disorders is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Quarta
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Zwi Berneman
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Peter Ponsaerts
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.
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Duffy CP, McCoy CE. The Role of MicroRNAs in Repair Processes in Multiple Sclerosis. Cells 2020; 9:cells9071711. [PMID: 32708794 PMCID: PMC7408558 DOI: 10.3390/cells9071711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disorder characterised by demyelination of central nervous system neurons with subsequent damage, cell death and disability. While mechanisms exist in the CNS to repair this damage, they are disrupted in MS and currently there are no treatments to address this deficit. In recent years, increasing attention has been paid to the influence of the small, non-coding RNA molecules, microRNAs (miRNAs), in autoimmune disorders, including MS. In this review, we examine the role of miRNAs in remyelination in the different cell types that contribute to MS. We focus on key miRNAs that have a central role in mediating the repair process, along with several more that play either secondary or inhibitory roles in one or more aspects. Finally, we consider the current state of miRNAs as therapeutic targets in MS, acknowledging current challenges and potential strategies to overcome them in developing effective novel therapeutics to enhance repair mechanisms in MS.
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Nguyen TKT, Niaz Z, d'Aigle J, Hwang SA, Kruzel ML, Actor JK. Lactoferrin reduces mycobacterial M1-type inflammation induced with trehalose 6,6'-dimycolate and facilitates the entry of fluoroquinolone into granulomas. Biochem Cell Biol 2020; 99:73-80. [PMID: 32402212 DOI: 10.1139/bcb-2020-0057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) results in the formation of a densely packed granulomatous response that essentially limits the entry and efficacy of immune effector cells. Furthermore, the physical nature of the granuloma does not readily permit the entry of therapeutic agents to sites where organisms reside. The Mtb cell wall mycolic acid, trehalose 6,6'-dimycolate (TDM), is a physiologically relevant molecule for modelling macrophage-mediated events during the establishment of the tuberculosis-induced granuloma pathogenesis. At present, there are no treatments for tuberculosis that focus on modulating the host's immune responses. Previous studies showed that lactoferrin (LF), a natural iron-binding protein proven to modulate inflammation, can ameliorate the cohesiveness of granuloma. This led to a series of studies that further examined the effects of recombinant human LF (rHLF) on the histological progression of TDM-induced pathology. Treatment with rHLF demonstrated significant reduction in size and number of inflammatory foci following injections of TDM, together with reduced levels pulmonary pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β. LF facilitated greater penetration of fluoroquinolone to the sites of pathology. Mice treated with TDM alone demonstrated exclusion of ofloxacin to regions of inflammatory response, whereas the animals treated with rHLF demonstrated increased penetration to inflammatory foci. Finally, recent findings support the hypothesis that this mycobacterial mycolic acid can specifically recruit M1-like polarized macrophages; rHLF treatment was shown to limit the level of this M1-like phenotypic recruitment, corresponding highly with decreased inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thao K T Nguyen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, UTHealth McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX 77030, USA.,The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Zainab Niaz
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, UTHealth McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - John d'Aigle
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, UTHealth McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX 77030, USA.,The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Shen-An Hwang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, UTHealth McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Marian L Kruzel
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, UTHealth McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jeffrey K Actor
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, UTHealth McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Mycobacterial Trehalose 6,6'-Dimycolate-Induced M1-Type Inflammation. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2019; 190:286-294. [PMID: 31734231 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2019.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Revised: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Murine models of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection demonstrate progression of M1-like (proinflammatory) and M2-like (anti-inflammatory) macrophage morphology following primary granuloma formation. The Mtb cell wall cording factor, trehalose 6,6'-dimycolate (TDM), is a physiologically relevant and useful molecule for modeling early macrophage-mediated events during establishment of the tuberculosis-induced granuloma pathogenesis. Here, it is shown that TDM is a major driver of the early M1-like macrophage response as seen during initiation of the granulomas of primary pathology. Proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-12p40 are produced in lung tissue after administration of TDM to mice. Furthermore, CD11b+CD45+ macrophages with a high surface expression of the M1-like markers CD38 and CD86 were found present in regions of pathology in lungs of mice at 7 days post-TDM introduction. Conversely, only low phenotypic marker expression of M2-like markers CD206 and EGR-2 were present on macrophages. These findings suggest that TDM plays a role in establishment of the M1-like shift in the microenvironment during primary tuberculosis.
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12
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Quarta A, Le Blon D, D'aes T, Pieters Z, Hamzei Taj S, Miró-Mur F, Luyckx E, Van Breedam E, Daans J, Goossens H, Dewilde S, Hens N, Pasque V, Planas AM, Hoehn M, Berneman Z, Ponsaerts P. Murine iPSC-derived microglia and macrophage cell culture models recapitulate distinct phenotypical and functional properties of classical and alternative neuro-immune polarisation. Brain Behav Immun 2019; 82:406-421. [PMID: 31525508 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2019.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Revised: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The establishment and validation of reliable induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived in vitro models to study microglia and monocyte/macrophage immune function holds great potential for fundamental and translational neuro-immunology research. In this study, we first demonstrate that ramified CX3CR1+ iPSC-microglia (cultured within a neural environment) and round-shaped CX3CR1- iPSC-macrophages can easily be differentiated from newly established murine CX3CR1eGFP/+CCR2RFP/+ iPSC lines. Furthermore, we show that obtained murine iPSC-microglia and iPSC-macrophages are distinct cell populations, even though iPSC-macrophages may upregulate CX3CR1 expression when cultured within a neural environment. Next, we characterized the phenotypical and functional properties of murine iPSC-microglia and iPSC-macrophages following classical and alternative immune polarisation. While iPSC-macrophages could easily be triggered to adopt a classically-activated or alternatively-activated phenotype following, respectively, lipopolysaccharide + interferon γ or interleukin 13 (IL13) stimulation, iPSC-microglia and iPSC-macrophages cultured within a neural environment displayed a more moderate activation profile as characterised by the absence of MHCII expression upon classical immune polarisation and the absence of Ym1 expression upon alternative immune polarisation. Finally, extending our preceding in vivo studies, this striking phenotypical divergence was also observed for resident microglia and infiltrating monocytes within highly inflammatory cortical lesions in CX3CR1eGFP/+CCR2RFP/+ mice subjected to middle cerebral arterial occlusion (MCAO) stroke and following IL13-mediated therapeutic intervention thereon. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that the applied murine iPSC-microglia and iPSC-macrophage culture models are able to recapitulate in vivo microglia and monocyte/macrophage ontogeny and corresponding phenotypical/functional properties upon classical and alternative immune polarisation, and therefore represent a valuable in vitro platform to further study and modulate microglia and (infiltrating) monocyte immune responses under neuro-inflammatory conditions within a neural environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Quarta
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium; Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Debbie Le Blon
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium; Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Tine D'aes
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium; Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Zoë Pieters
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium; Interuniversity Institute for Biostatistics and Statistical Bioinformatics, Hasselt University, Belgium; Centre for Health Economics Research and Modelling Infectious Diseases, University of Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Somayyeh Hamzei Taj
- In-vivo-NMR Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Cologne, Germany
| | - Francesc Miró-Mur
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Evi Luyckx
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium; Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium; Protein Chemistry, Proteomics and Epigenetic Signaling, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Elise Van Breedam
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium; Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Jasmijn Daans
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium; Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Herman Goossens
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Sylvia Dewilde
- Protein Chemistry, Proteomics and Epigenetic Signaling, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Niel Hens
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium; Interuniversity Institute for Biostatistics and Statistical Bioinformatics, Hasselt University, Belgium; Centre for Health Economics Research and Modelling Infectious Diseases, University of Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Vincent Pasque
- Department of Development and Regeneration, Leuven Stem Cell Institute, Leuven Cancer Institute, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Belgium
| | - Anna M Planas
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain; Department of Brain Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona (IIBB)-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mathias Hoehn
- In-vivo-NMR Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Cologne, Germany; Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Zwi Berneman
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium; Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Peter Ponsaerts
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium; Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.
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13
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Wang J, Wang J, Wang J, Yang B, Weng Q, He Q. Targeting Microglia and Macrophages: A Potential Treatment Strategy for Multiple Sclerosis. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:286. [PMID: 30967783 PMCID: PMC6438858 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS). The early stage is characterized by relapses and the later stage, by progressive disability. Results from experimental and clinical investigations have demonstrated that microglia and macrophages play a key part in the disease course. These cells actively initiate immune infiltration and the demyelination cascade during the early phase of the disease; however, they promote remyelination and alleviate disease in later stages. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the existing knowledge regarding the neuromodulatory function of macrophages and microglia in the healthy and injured CNS, and it discusses the feasibility of harnessing microglia and macrophage physiology to treat MS. The review encourages further investigations into macrophage-targeted therapy, as well as macrophage-based drug delivery, for realizing efficient treatment strategies for MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaying Wang
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jiajia Wang
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jincheng Wang
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Bo Yang
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qinjie Weng
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qiaojun He
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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14
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Scheu S, Ali S, Mann-Nüttel R, Richter L, Arolt V, Dannlowski U, Kuhlmann T, Klotz L, Alferink J. Interferon β-Mediated Protective Functions of Microglia in Central Nervous System Autoimmunity. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E190. [PMID: 30621022 PMCID: PMC6337097 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20010190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Revised: 12/23/2018] [Accepted: 12/28/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) leading to demyelination and axonal damage. It often affects young adults and can lead to neurological disability. Interferon β (IFNβ) preparations represent widely used treatment regimens for patients with relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) with therapeutic efficacy in reducing disease progression and frequency of acute exacerbations. In mice, IFNβ therapy has been shown to ameliorate experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of MS while genetic deletion of IFNβ or its receptor augments clinical severity of disease. However, the complex mechanism of action of IFNβ in CNS autoimmunity has not been fully elucidated. Here, we review our current understanding of the origin, phenotype, and function of microglia and CNS immigrating macrophages in the pathogenesis of MS and EAE. In addition, we highlight the emerging roles of microglia as IFNβ-producing cells and vice versa the impact of IFNβ on microglia in CNS autoimmunity. We finally discuss recent progress in unraveling the underlying molecular mechanisms of IFNβ-mediated effects in EAE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Scheu
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, University of Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Shafaqat Ali
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, University of Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany.
- Cells in Motion, Cluster of Excellence, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Ritu Mann-Nüttel
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, University of Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Lisa Richter
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, University of Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Volker Arolt
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Udo Dannlowski
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Tanja Kuhlmann
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Hospital Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany.
| | - Luisa Klotz
- Department of Neurology, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Judith Alferink
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany.
- Cells in Motion, Cluster of Excellence, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany.
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15
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Peruzzotti-Jametti L, Pluchino S. Targeting Mitochondrial Metabolism in Neuroinflammation: Towards a Therapy for Progressive Multiple Sclerosis. Trends Mol Med 2018; 24:838-855. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2018.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Revised: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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16
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Dubbelaar ML, Kracht L, Eggen BJL, Boddeke EWGM. The Kaleidoscope of Microglial Phenotypes. Front Immunol 2018; 9:1753. [PMID: 30108586 PMCID: PMC6079257 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene expression analyses of microglia, the tissue-resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS), led to the identification of homeostatic as well as neurological disease-specific gene signatures of microglial phenotypes. Upon alterations in the neural microenvironment, either caused by local insults from within the CNS (during neurodegenerative diseases) or by macroenvironmental incidents, such as social stress, microglia can switch phenotypes-generally referred to as "microglial activation." The interplay between the microenvironment and its influence on microglial phenotypes, regulated by (epi)genetic mechanisms, can be imagined as the different colorful crystal formations (microglial phenotypes) that change upon rotation (microenvironmental changes) of a kaleidoscope. In this review, we will discuss microglial phenotypes in relation to neurodevelopment, homeostasis, in vitro conditions, aging, and neurodegenerative diseases based on transcriptome studies. By overlaying these disease-specific microglial signatures, recent publications have identified a specific set of genes that is differentially expressed in all investigated diseases, called a microglial core gene signature with multiple diseases. We will conclude this review with a discussion about the complexity of this microglial core gene signature associated with multiple diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marissa L Dubbelaar
- Department of Neuroscience, Section Medical Physiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Laura Kracht
- Department of Neuroscience, Section Medical Physiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Bart J L Eggen
- Department of Neuroscience, Section Medical Physiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Erik W G M Boddeke
- Department of Neuroscience, Section Medical Physiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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17
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Sevenich L. Brain-Resident Microglia and Blood-Borne Macrophages Orchestrate Central Nervous System Inflammation in Neurodegenerative Disorders and Brain Cancer. Front Immunol 2018; 9:697. [PMID: 29681904 PMCID: PMC5897444 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammation is a hallmark of different central nervous system (CNS) pathologies. It has been linked to neurodegenerative disorders as well as primary and metastatic brain tumors. Microglia, the brain-resident immune cells, are emerging as a central player in regulating key pathways in CNS inflammation. Recent insights into neuroinflammation indicate that blood-borne immune cells represent an additional critical cellular component in mediating CNS inflammation. The lack of experimental systems that allow for discrimination between brain-resident and recruited myeloid cells has previously halted functional analysis of microglia and their blood-borne counterparts in brain malignancies. However, recent conceptual and technological advances, such as the generation of lineage tracing models and the identification of cell type-specific markers provide unprecedented opportunities to study the cellular functions of microglia and macrophages by functional interference. The use of different “omic” strategies as well as imaging techniques has significantly increased our knowledge of disease-associated gene signatures and effector functions under pathological conditions. In this review, recent developments in evaluating functions of brain-resident and recruited myeloid cells in neurodegenerative disorders and brain cancers will be discussed and unique or shared cellular traits of microglia and macrophages in different CNS disorders will be highlighted. Insight from these studies will shape our understanding of disease- and cell-type-specific effector functions of microglia or macrophages and will open new avenues for therapeutic intervention that target aberrant functions of myeloid cells in CNS pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Sevenich
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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18
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Eggen BJL, Boddeke EWGM, Kooistra SM. Regulation of Microglia Identity from an Epigenetic and Transcriptomic Point of View. Neuroscience 2017; 405:3-13. [PMID: 29247774 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2017] [Revised: 12/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Microglia have long been recognized as the endogenous innate immune elements in the central nervous system (CNS) parenchyma. Besides fulfilling local immune-related functions, they provide cross-talk between the CNS and the immune system at large. In the adult CNS, microglia are involved in maintaining brain homeostasis, modulating synaptic transmission and clearance of apoptotic cells. During embryonic development, microglia are responsible for the removal of supernumerary synapses and neurons, and neuronal network formation. The full scale of their potential abilities has been highlighted by improvements in microglia isolation methods, the development of genetically tagged mouse models, advanced imaging technologies and the application of next-generation sequencing in recent years. Genome-wide expression analysis of relatively pure microglia populations from both mouse and human CNS tissues has thereby greatly contributed to our knowledge of their biology; what defines them under homeostatic conditions and how microglia respond to processes like aging and CNS disease? How and to what degree beneficial functions of microglia can be restored in the aged or diseased brain will be the key issue to be addressed in future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bart J L Eggen
- Department of Neuroscience, Section Medical Physiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Erik W G M Boddeke
- Department of Neuroscience, Section Medical Physiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Susanne M Kooistra
- Department of Neuroscience, Section Medical Physiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands.
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