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Tsai T, Deppe L, Burkhard Dick H, Joachim SC. [Cell loss in retinal ischemia is associated with increased necroptosis]. DIE OPHTHALMOLOGIE 2024:10.1007/s00347-024-02063-z. [PMID: 38922403 DOI: 10.1007/s00347-024-02063-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2023] [Revised: 05/02/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Retinal ischemia plays a central pathophysiological role in numerous eye diseases, such as glaucoma. In addition to apoptosis, autophagy, necroptosis and ferroptosis are among the cell death mechanisms of ischemia; however, their role is not clearly understood and controversially discussed. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study is to gain an improved understanding of the role of alternative cell death mechanisms such as autophagy and necroptosis after retinal ischemia. Based on this, future autophagy-based or necroptosis-based therapeutic approaches could be developed. MATERIAL AND METHODS Retinal ischemia reperfusion was induced in one eye of 6 to 8‑week-old rats by temporarily increasing the intraocular pressure to 140 mm Hg (60 min), followed by reperfusion. The untreated contralateral eye served as a control. Retinas after ischemia and control retinas were examined 7 days after ischemia immunohistochemically with markers for retinal ganglion cells (RGC), astrocytes (GFAP) as well as an autophagy (LAMP1) and a necroptosis marker (RIPK3) (n = 6/group). RESULTS Ischemia reperfusion resulted in both significant RGC loss (p ≤ 0.001) and a significant increase of astrocyte area (p = 0.026) after 7 days. Interestingly, the number of autophagic LAMP1 positive cells was unchanged 7 days after ischemia (p = 0.272), whereas the number of necroptotic RIPK3 positive cells was significantly increased (p ≤ 0.001). CONCLUSION Necroptotic processes appear to be activated 7 days after ischemia reperfusion, contributing to retinal cell death and activation of astrocytes. Late autophagic processes are not activated 7 days after ischemia. Necroptosis-associated parameters could therefore be targeted as an early therapeutic approach after ischemia in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Tsai
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, Universitäts-Augenklinik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Deutschland
| | - Leonie Deppe
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, Universitäts-Augenklinik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Deutschland
| | - H Burkhard Dick
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, Universitäts-Augenklinik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Deutschland
| | - Stephanie C Joachim
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, Universitäts-Augenklinik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Deutschland.
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2
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Hu A, Schmidt MHH, Heinig N. Microglia in retinal angiogenesis and diabetic retinopathy. Angiogenesis 2024:10.1007/s10456-024-09911-1. [PMID: 38564108 DOI: 10.1007/s10456-024-09911-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy has a high probability of causing visual impairment or blindness throughout the disease progression and is characterized by the growth of new blood vessels in the retina at an advanced, proliferative stage. Microglia are a resident immune population in the central nervous system, known to play a crucial role in regulating retinal angiogenesis in both physiological and pathological conditions, including diabetic retinopathy. Physiologically, they are located close to blood vessels and are essential for forming new blood vessels (neovascularization). In diabetic retinopathy, microglia become widely activated, showing a distinct polarization phenotype that leads to their accumulation around neovascular tufts. These activated microglia induce pathogenic angiogenesis through the secretion of various angiogenic factors and by regulating the status of endothelial cells. Interestingly, some subtypes of microglia simultaneously promote the regression of neovascularization tufts and normal angiogenesis in neovascularization lesions. Modulating the state of microglial activation to ameliorate neovascularization thus appears as a promising potential therapeutic approach for managing diabetic retinopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiyan Hu
- Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden School of Medicine, Fetscherstr 74, 01307, Dresden, Germany
| | - Mirko H H Schmidt
- Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden School of Medicine, Fetscherstr 74, 01307, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Nora Heinig
- Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden School of Medicine, Fetscherstr 74, 01307, Dresden, Germany.
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3
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Martínez-Vacas A, Di Pierdomenico J, Gómez-Ramirez AM, Vidal-Sanz M, Villegas-Pérez MP, García-Ayuso D. Dose-Related Side Effects of Intravitreal Injections of Humanized Anti-Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor in Rats: Glial Cell Reactivity and Retinal Ganglion Cell Loss. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2024; 65:10. [PMID: 38573620 PMCID: PMC10996988 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.65.4.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose In a previous study, we documented that the Intravitreal injections (IVIs) of bevacizumab in rats caused a retinal inflammatory response. We now study whether the IVI of other humanized anti-VEGF: ranibizumab and aflibercept also cause an inflammatory reaction in the rat retina and if it depends on the dose administered. Finally, we study whether this reaction affects retinal ganglion cell (RGC) survival. Methods Albino Sprague-Dawley rats received a single IVI of 5 µL of PBS or ranibizumab or aflibercept at the concentration used in clinical practice (10 µg/µL or 40 µg/µL) or at a lower concentration (0.38 µg/µL and 1.5 µg/µL) calculated to obtain within the rat eye the same concentration as in the human eye in clinical practice. Others received a single 5 µL IVI of a polyclonal goat anti-rat VEGF (0.015 µg/µL) or of vehicle (PBS). Animals were processed 7 days or 1 month later. Retinal whole mounts were immunolabeled for the detection of microglial, macroglial, RGCs, and intrinsically photosensitive RGCs (ipRGCs). Fluorescence and confocal microscopy were used to examine retinal changes, and RGCs and ipRGCs were quantified automatically or semiautomatically, respectively. Results All the injected substances including the PBS induced detectable side effects, namely, retinal microglial cell activation and retinal astrocyte hypertrophy. However, there was a greater microglial and macroglial response when the higher concentrations of ranibizumab and aflibercept were injected than when PBS, the antibody anti-rat VEGF and the lower concentrations of ranibizumab or aflibercept were injected. The higher concentration of ranibizumab and aflibercept resulted also in significant RGC death, but did not cause appreciable ipRGC death. Conclusions The IVI of all the substances had some retinal inflammatory effects. The IVI of humanized anti-VEGF to rats at high doses cause important side effects: severe inflammation and RGC death, but not ipRGC death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Martínez-Vacas
- Grupo de Investigación Oftalmología Experimental, Departamento de Oftalmología, Optometría, Otorrinolaringología y Anatomía Patológica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Murcia, Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria (IMIB), Campus de Ciencias de la Salud, Murcia, España
| | - Johnny Di Pierdomenico
- Grupo de Investigación Oftalmología Experimental, Departamento de Oftalmología, Optometría, Otorrinolaringología y Anatomía Patológica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Murcia, Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria (IMIB), Campus de Ciencias de la Salud, Murcia, España
| | - Ana María Gómez-Ramirez
- Grupo de Investigación Oftalmología Experimental, Departamento de Oftalmología, Optometría, Otorrinolaringología y Anatomía Patológica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Murcia, Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria (IMIB), Campus de Ciencias de la Salud, Murcia, España
| | - Manuel Vidal-Sanz
- Grupo de Investigación Oftalmología Experimental, Departamento de Oftalmología, Optometría, Otorrinolaringología y Anatomía Patológica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Murcia, Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria (IMIB), Campus de Ciencias de la Salud, Murcia, España
| | - María P. Villegas-Pérez
- Grupo de Investigación Oftalmología Experimental, Departamento de Oftalmología, Optometría, Otorrinolaringología y Anatomía Patológica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Murcia, Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria (IMIB), Campus de Ciencias de la Salud, Murcia, España
| | - Diego García-Ayuso
- Grupo de Investigación Oftalmología Experimental, Departamento de Oftalmología, Optometría, Otorrinolaringología y Anatomía Patológica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Murcia, Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria (IMIB), Campus de Ciencias de la Salud, Murcia, España
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Reinehr S, Wulf J, Theile J, Schulte KK, Peters M, Fuchshofer R, Dick HB, Joachim SC. In a novel autoimmune and high-pressure glaucoma model a complex immune response is induced. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1296178. [PMID: 38515755 PMCID: PMC10955086 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1296178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Background The neurodegenerative processes leading to glaucoma are complex. In addition to elevated intraocular pressure (IOP), an involvement of immunological mechanisms is most likely. In the new multifactorial glaucoma model, a combination of high IOP and optic nerve antigen (ONA) immunization leads to an enhanced loss of retinal ganglion cells accompanied by a higher number of microglia/macrophages in the inner retina. Here, we aimed to evaluate the immune response in this new model, especially the complement activation and the number of T-cells, for the first time. Further, the microglia/macrophage response was examined in more detail. Methods Six-week-old wildtype (WT+ONA) and βB1-connective tissue growth factor high-pressure mice (CTGF+ONA) were immunized with 1 mg ONA. A wildtype control (WT) and a CTGF group (CTGF) received NaCl instead. Six weeks after immunization, retinae from all four groups were processed for immunohistology, RT-qPCR, and flow cytometry, while serum was used for microarray analyses. Results We noticed elevated numbers of C1q+ cells (classical complement pathway) in CTGF and CTGF+ONA retinae as well as an upregulation of C1qa, C1qb, and C1qc mRNA levels in these groups. While the complement C3 was only increased in CTGF and CTGF+ONA retinae, enhanced numbers of the terminal membrane attack complex were noted in all three glaucoma groups. Flow cytometry and RT-qPCR analyses revealed an enhancement of different microglia/macrophages markers, including CD11b, especially in CTGF and CTGF+ONA retinae. Interestingly, increased retinal mRNA as well as serum levels of the tumor necrosis factor α were found throughout the different glaucoma groups. Lastly, more T-cells could be observed in the ganglion cell layer of the new CTGF+ONA model. Conclusion These results emphasize an involvement of the complement system, microglia/macrophages, and T-cells in glaucomatous disease. Moreover, in the new multifactorial glaucoma model, increased IOP in combination with autoimmune processes seem to enforce an additional T-cell response, leading to a more persistent pathology. Hence, this new model mimics the pathomechanisms occurring in human glaucoma more accurately and could therefore be a helpful tool to find new therapeutic approaches for patients in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Reinehr
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Julien Wulf
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Janine Theile
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Kim K. Schulte
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Marcus Peters
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Rudolf Fuchshofer
- Institute of Human Anatomy and Embryology, University Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - H. Burkhard Dick
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Stephanie C. Joachim
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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Daruich A, Robert MP, Zola M, Matet A, Bremond-Gignac D. Retinal stroke: research models, targets and experimental drugs. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2023; 32:755-760. [PMID: 37651742 DOI: 10.1080/13543784.2023.2254688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Retinal artery occlusion (RAO), often caused by a microembolus and resulting in inner retinal ischemia, could be considered as the retinal analog to cerebral stroke. Although several therapeutic targets have been suggested in animal models of retinal ischemia and several potential treatments have been evaluated on small series of patients, central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO) is still rarely treatable in clinical practice. AREAS COVERED Here, we review several animal models of RAO, including increased intraocular pressure, laser, vasoconstriction, embolization and clamp. We also review the pathogenic mechanisms that contribute to cell death cascades during ischemia, and the therapeutic strategies targeting these events. These strategies aim to restore blood flow by fibrinolysis, increase the oxygen or glucose supply, decrease the energy demands, restrict ionic leak fluxes or reduce the detrimental effects of glutamate, calcium and free radicals. The current literature suggests that tPA treatment could be effective for CRAO. EXPERT OPINION Eye care professionals must make a rapid and accurate diagnosis and immediately refer patients with acute retinal stroke to specialized centers. CRAO management should also be facilitated by developing local networks to encourage collaboration among ophthalmologists, retina specialists and stroke neurologists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra Daruich
- Ophthalmology Department, Necker-Enfants Malades University Hospital, AP-HP, Paris Cité University, Paris, France
- INSERM, UMRS1138, Team 17, From physiopathology of ocular diseases to clinical development, Sorbonne Paris Cité University, Paris, France
| | - Matthieu P Robert
- Ophthalmology Department, Necker-Enfants Malades University Hospital, AP-HP, Paris Cité University, Paris, France
- Borelli Centre, UMR 9010, CNRS-SSA-ENS Paris Saclay-Paris Cité University, Paris, France
| | - Marta Zola
- INSERM, UMRS1138, Team 17, From physiopathology of ocular diseases to clinical development, Sorbonne Paris Cité University, Paris, France
| | - Alexandre Matet
- Ophthalmology Department, Institut Curie, Paris Cité University, Paris, France
| | - Dominique Bremond-Gignac
- Ophthalmology Department, Necker-Enfants Malades University Hospital, AP-HP, Paris Cité University, Paris, France
- INSERM, UMRS1138, Team 17, From physiopathology of ocular diseases to clinical development, Sorbonne Paris Cité University, Paris, France
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Reinehr S, Girbig RM, Schulte KK, Theile J, Asaad MA, Fuchshofer R, Dick H, Joachim SC. Enhanced glaucomatous damage accompanied by glial response in a new multifactorial mouse model. Front Immunol 2023; 13:1017076. [PMID: 36733392 PMCID: PMC9887307 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1017076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Glaucoma is a complex, multifactorial neurodegenerative disease, which can lead to blindness if left untreated. It seems that, among others, immune processes, elevated intraocular pressure (IOP), or a combination of these factors are responsible for glaucomatous damage. Here, we combined two glaucoma models to examine if a combination of risk factors (IOP and immune response) results in a more severe damage of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and the optic nerves as well as an additional glia activation. Methods Six-week-old wildtype (WT+ONA) and βB1-Connective Tissue Growth Factor (CTGF) mice (CTGF+ONA) were immunized with 1 mg ONA (optic nerve antigen). A WT and a CTGF control group (CTGF) received sodium chloride instead. IOP was measured before and every two weeks after immunization. After six weeks, electroretinogram (ERG) measurements were performed. Then, retinae and optic nerves were processed for (immuno-) histology. Further, mRNA levels of corresponding genes in optic nerve and retina were analyzed via RT-qPCR. Results Six weeks after immunization, the IOP in CTGF and CTGF+ONA mice was increased. The optic nerve of CTGF+ONA animals displayed the most severe cell inflammation, demyelination, and macroglia activation. Fewer numbers of oligodendrocytes were only observed in WT+ONA optic nerves, while more apoptotic cells triggered by the extrinsic pathway could be revealed in all three glaucoma groups. The number of microglia/macrophages was not altered within the optic nerves of all groups. The loss of neuronal cells, especially RGCs was most pronounced in CTGF+ONA retinae in the central part and this was accompanied by an enhanced activation of microglia/macrophages. Also, Müller cell activation could be noted in CTGF and CTGF+ONA retinae. Discussion In this new model, an additive degeneration could be noted in optic nerves as well as in the number of RGCs. These results suggest a potential additive role of high IOP and immune factors in glaucoma development, which will aid for understanding this multifactorial disease more precisely in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Reinehr
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany,*Correspondence: Sabrina Reinehr,
| | - Renée M. Girbig
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Kim K. Schulte
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Janine Theile
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - M. Ali Asaad
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Rudolf Fuchshofer
- Institute of Human Anatomy and Embryology, University Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - H. Burkhard Dick
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Stephanie C. Joachim
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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Ebrahimi M, Balibegloo M, Rezaei N. Monoclonal antibodies in diabetic retinopathy. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2022; 18:163-178. [PMID: 35105268 DOI: 10.1080/1744666x.2022.2037420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Diabetic retinopathy (DR), as one of the main complications of diabetes, is among the leading causes of blindness and visual impairment worldwide. AREAS COVERED Current clinical therapies include photocoagulation, vitrectomy, and anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) therapies. Bevacizumab and ranibizumab are two monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) inhibiting angiogenesis. Intravitreal ranibizumab and bevacizumab can decrease the rate of blindness and retinal thickness, and improve visual acuity whether as monotherapy or combined with other treatments. They can increase the efficacy of other treatments and decrease their adverse events. Although administered intravitreally, they also might enter the circulation and cause systemic effects. This study is aimed to review our current knowledge about mAbs, bevacizumab and ranibizumab, in DR including superiorities, challenges, and limitations. Meanwhile, we tried to shed light on new ideas to overcome these limitations. Our latest search was done in April 2021 mainly through PubMed and Google Scholar. Relevant clinical studies were imported. EXPERT OPINION Future direction includes detection of more therapeutic targets considering other components of DR pathophysiology and shared pathogenesis of DR and neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease, the treat-and-extend regimen, and new ways of drug delivery and other routes of ocular drug administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moein Ebrahimi
- School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy and Autoimmunity (NIIMA),Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Balibegloo
- Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy and Autoimmunity (NIIMA),Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran.,Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nima Rezaei
- Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy and Autoimmunity (NIIMA),Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran.,Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Hunziker D, Reinehr S, Palmhof M, Wagner N, Biniasch T, Stute G, Mattei P, Schmitz P, DiGiorgio P, Hert J, Rudolph MG, Benz J, Stihle M, Gsell B, Müller S, Gasser R, Schonhoven N, Ullmer C, Joachim SC. Synthesis, Characterization, and in vivo Evaluation of a Novel Potent Autotaxin-Inhibitor. Front Pharmacol 2022; 12:699535. [PMID: 35126098 PMCID: PMC8807399 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.699535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The autotaxin-lysophosphatidic acid (ATX-LPA) signaling pathway plays a role in a variety of autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis or neurodegeneration. A link to the pathogenesis of glaucoma is suggested by an overactive ATX-LPA axis in aqueous humor samples of glaucoma patients. Analysis of such samples suggests that the ATX-LPA axis contributes to the fibrogenic activity and resistance to aqueous humor outflow through the trabecular meshwork. In order to inhibit or modulate this pathway, we developed a new series of ATX-inhibitors containing novel bicyclic and spirocyclic structural motifs. A potent lead compound (IC50 against ATX: 6 nM) with good in vivo PK, favorable in vitro property, and safety profile was generated. This compound leads to lowered LPA levels in vivo after oral administration. Hence, it was suitable for chronic oral treatment in two rodent models of glaucoma, the experimental autoimmune glaucoma (EAG) and the ischemia/reperfusion models. In the EAG model, rats were immunized with an optic nerve antigen homogenate, while controls received sodium chloride. Retinal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) was induced by elevating the intraocular pressure (IOP) in one eye to 140 mmHg for 60 min, followed by reperfusion, while the other untreated eye served as control. Retinae and optic nerves were evaluated 28 days after EAG or 7 and 14 days after I/R induction. Oral treatment with the optimized ATX-inhibitor lead to reduced retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss in both glaucoma models. In the optic nerve, the protective effect of ATX inhibition was less effective compared to the retina and only a trend to a weakened neurofilament distortion was detectable. Taken together, these results provide evidence that the dysregulation of the ATX-LPA axis in the aqueous humor of glaucoma patients, in addition to the postulated outflow impairment, might also contribute to RGC loss. The observation that ATX-inhibitor treatment in both glaucoma models did not result in significant IOP increases or decreases after oral treatment indicates that protection from RGC loss due to inhibition of the ATX-LPA axis is independent of an IOP lowering effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Hunziker
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Small Molecule Research, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sabrina Reinehr
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Marina Palmhof
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Natalie Wagner
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Thomas Biniasch
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Gesa Stute
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Patrizio Mattei
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Small Molecule Research, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Petra Schmitz
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Small Molecule Research, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Patrick DiGiorgio
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Small Molecule Research, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jérôme Hert
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Small Molecule Research, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Markus G. Rudolph
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Small Molecule Research, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Joerg Benz
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Small Molecule Research, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Martine Stihle
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Small Molecule Research, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Bernard Gsell
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Small Molecule Research, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Müller
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Small Molecule Research, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Rodolfo Gasser
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Small Molecule Research, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Pharma Research and Early Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nina Schonhoven
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Christoph Ullmer
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Pharma Research and Early Development, Ophthalmology Discovery, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- *Correspondence: Christoph Ullmer, ; Stephanie C. Joachim,
| | - Stephanie C. Joachim
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
- *Correspondence: Christoph Ullmer, ; Stephanie C. Joachim,
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Zhu Z, Meng Y, Kozak I, Xie M, Liang Y, Yan B, Zhou L, Ouyang P, Yao X, Luo J. Microvascular Structure Changes After Intravitreal Ranibizumab Injection in Retinal Vein Occlusion Patients With and Without Macular Ischemia. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 8:737537. [PMID: 34869430 PMCID: PMC8632713 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2021.737537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To investigate the changes in the macular microvascular structure after anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) treatment in retinal vein occlusion (RVO) patients with and without macular ischemia. Methods: A total of 39 patients were divided into the macular ischemia group (n = 22) and the nonischemia group (n = 17) at baseline. All the patients received an intravitreal injection of ranibizumab with a 3+ pro re nata (PRN) regimen. The foveal avascular zone (FAZ) areas, macular vessel density (VD), and macular ischemic index (ISI) were evaluated at baseline and 3 and 6 months after treatment. Results: After treatment, some patients in the macular ischemia group achieved obvious reperfusion in macular nonperfusion areas. The VD and macular ISI improved in RVO patients, but the changes in VD and macular ISI were different in the two groups. The improvement of best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) was positively correlated with the improvement of macular perfusion status. Macular perfusion remained stable in most patients in RVO and only one patient had macular ischemia aggravation. Conclusion: The macular microvascular structures were stable in most RVO patients after anti-VEGF treatment. At the same time, some patients with macular ischemia presented reperfusion in macular nonperfusion areas, and still a few patients presented aggravated macular ischemia. Macular ISI is a good way to evaluate macular perfusion status in RVO compared to VD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyi Zhu
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yongan Meng
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Igor Kozak
- Hunan Clinical Research Center of Ophthalmic Disease, Changsha, China
| | - Manyun Xie
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Youling Liang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Bin Yan
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Liang Zhou
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Pingbo Ouyang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xiaoxi Yao
- Moorfields Eye Hospital UAE, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Jing Luo
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Shenzhen College of International Education, Shenzhen, China
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Zhu ZY, Meng YA, Yan B, Luo J. Effect of anti-VEGF treatment on nonperfusion areas in ischemic retinopathy. Int J Ophthalmol 2021; 14:1647-1652. [PMID: 34804852 DOI: 10.18240/ijo.2021.11.01] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, retinal ischemia such as that which occurs in diabetic retinopathy (DR) and retinal vein occlusion (RVO) has become a hotspot of ischemic retinopathy research. High levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) are recognized as a major cause of macular edema (ME) in DR and RVO. High concentrations of VEGF in the vitreous can lead to serious retinal ischemia and hypoxia and form retinal nonperfusion areas (NPAs). Different levels of retinal ischemia can represent disease severity and progression. Anti-VEGF therapy as the first-line treatment for ME has been found to be effective in improving vision, but there are still disputes about whether anti-VEGF therapy could improve retinal ischemia and achieve reperfusion of previously developed retinal NPAs. Here, we review and summarize studies of the effects of anti-VEGF drugs on retinal ischemia, especially NPAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi-Yi Zhu
- Department of Ophthalmology, the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410011, Hunan Province, China
| | - Yong-An Meng
- Department of Ophthalmology, the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410011, Hunan Province, China
| | - Bin Yan
- Department of Ophthalmology, the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410011, Hunan Province, China
| | - Jing Luo
- Department of Ophthalmology, the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410011, Hunan Province, China.,Hunan Clinical Research Center of Ophthalmic Disease, Changsha 410011, Hunan Province, China
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11
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Reinehr S, Doerner JD, Mueller-Buehl AM, Koch D, Fuchshofer R, Dick HB, Joachim SC. Cytokine and Complement Response in the Glaucomatous βB1-CTGF Mouse Model. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:718087. [PMID: 34867198 PMCID: PMC8637215 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.718087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Glaucoma is a complex neurodegenerative disease leading to a loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and optic nerve axons. An activation of the complement system seems to contribute to cell loss in this disease. Hence, we investigated a possible initiation of the complement system and the cytokine response in the βB1-CTGF glaucoma model. In these mice, intraocular pressure is elevated, which is the main glaucoma risk factor in patients, and RGC loss occurs at 15 weeks of age. Therefore, quantitative real-time PCR and immunohistological experiments were performed in 5-, 10-, and 15-week-old βB1-CTGF animals and their corresponding wildtypes (WT) to analyze the expression of several complement system factors. We could show that mRNA levels of the terminal complement pathway components C3 and C5 (Hc) were upregulated at 10 weeks. In accordance, more C3+ and membrane attack complex+ cells were observed in transgenic retinae. Further, the C5a receptor anaphylatoxin receptor (C5ar) and the complement component C5a receptor 1 (C5ar1; CD88) mRNA levels were upregulated in 10- and 15-week-old βB1-CTGF mice. Interestingly, all three activation routes of the complement system were elevated in βB1-CTGF mice at some age. Especially C1q, as a marker of the classical pathway, was significantly increased at all investigated ages. Furthermore, mRNA expression levels of interferon-γ (Infg) were upregulated at 5 weeks, while Cxcl1 and Cxcl2 mRNA levels were upregulated at 10 and 15 weeks. The mRNA levels of the chemokines Cxcl10 were increased at all ages in βB1-CTGF mice. These results lead to the assumption that in these transgenic mice, a complement activation mainly through the classical pathway as well as a cytokine response plays a major role in cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Reinehr
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Johanna D. Doerner
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Ana M. Mueller-Buehl
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Dennis Koch
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Rudolf Fuchshofer
- Institute of Human Anatomy and Embryology, University Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - H. Burkhard Dick
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Stephanie C. Joachim
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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12
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Activation of Apoptosis in a βB1-CTGF Transgenic Mouse Model. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22041997. [PMID: 33671472 PMCID: PMC7922353 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22041997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
To reveal the pathomechanisms of glaucoma, a common cause of blindness, suitable animal models are needed. As previously shown, retinal ganglion cell and optic nerve degeneration occur in βB1-CTGF mice. Here, we aimed to determine possible apoptotic mechanisms and degeneration of different retinal cells. Hence, retinae were processed for immunohistology (n = 5–9/group) and quantitative real-time PCR analysis (n = 5–7/group) in 5- and 10-week-old βB1-CTGF and wildtype controls. We noted significantly more cleaved caspase 3+ cells in βB1-CTGF retinae at 5 (p = 0.005) and 10 weeks (p = 0.02), and a significant upregulation of Casp3 and Bax/Bcl2 mRNA levels (p < 0.05). Furthermore, more terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL+) cells were detected in transgenic mice at 5 (p = 0.03) and 10 weeks (p = 0.02). Neurofilament H staining (p = 0.01) as well as Nefh (p = 0.02) and Tubb3 (p = 0.009) mRNA levels were significantly decreased at 10 weeks. GABAergic synapse intensity was lower at 5 weeks, while no alterations were noted at 10 weeks. The glutamatergic synapse intensity was decreased at 5 (p = 0.007) and 10 weeks (p = 0.01). No changes were observed for bipolar cells, photoreceptors, and macroglia. We conclude that apoptotic processes and synapse loss precede neuronal death in this model. This slow progression rate makes the βB1-CTGF mice a suitable model to study primary open-angle glaucoma.
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Grotegut P, Perumal N, Kuehn S, Smit A, Dick HB, Grus FH, Joachim SC. Minocycline reduces inflammatory response and cell death in a S100B retina degeneration model. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:375. [PMID: 33317557 PMCID: PMC7737388 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-02012-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous studies noted that intravitreal injection of S100B triggered a glaucoma-like degeneration of retina and optic nerve as well as microglia activation after 14 days. The precise role of microglia in our intravitreal S100B model is still unclear. Hence, microglia were inhibited through minocycline. The aim is to investigate whether microglia have a significant influence on the degeneration process or whether they are only a side effect in the model studied here. METHODS Minocycline was applied daily in rats by intraperitoneal injection using two different concentrations (13.5 mg/kg body weight, 25 mg/kg body weight). One day after treatment start, S100B or PBS was intravitreally injected in one eye per rat. The naïve groups received no injections. This resulted in a total of five groups (naïve n = 14, PBS n = 14, S100B n = 13, 13.5 mg/kg mino n = 15, 25 mg/kg mino n = 15). At day 14, electroretinogram measurements were performed, followed by immunofluorescence and label-free quantitative proteomics analysis. The focus of these investigations was on the survival of RGCs as well as their axons, the response of the microglia, and the identification of further pathological modes of action of S100B. RESULTS The best signal transmission was detected via ERG in the 13.5 mg/kg mino group. The inhibition of the microglia protected optic nerve neurofilaments and decreased the negative impact of S100B on RGCs. However, the minocycline treatment could not trigger complete protection of RGCs. Furthermore, in retina and optic nerve, the minocycline treatment reduced the number and activity of S100B-triggered microglia in a concentration-dependent manner. Proteomics analysis showed that S100B application led to numerous metabolic functions and cellular stress, mainly an increased inflammatory response, glycolysis, and mitochondrial dysfunction, which caused oxidative stress in the retina. Importantly, the protective capability of lower dose of minocycline was unraveled by suppressing the apoptotic, inflammatory, and the altered metabolic processes caused by S100B insult in the retina. CONCLUSION Intravitreally injected S100B not only led to a pro-inflammatory microglial reaction, but also a mitochondrial and metabolic dysfunction. Also, these results suggest that an excessive microglial response may be a significant degenerative factor, but not the only trigger for increased cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pia Grotegut
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Germany
| | - Natarajan Perumal
- Experimental and Translational Ophthalmology, Department of Ophthalmology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Sandra Kuehn
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Germany
| | - Andreas Smit
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Germany
| | - H Burkhard Dick
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Germany
| | - Franz H Grus
- Experimental and Translational Ophthalmology, Department of Ophthalmology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Stephanie C Joachim
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Germany.
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Zhu Z, Liang Y, Yan B, Meng Z, Long K, Zhang Y, Luo J. Clinical effect of conbercept on improving diabetic macular ischemia by OCT angiography. BMC Ophthalmol 2020; 20:382. [PMID: 32977791 PMCID: PMC7519504 DOI: 10.1186/s12886-020-01648-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Varying degrees of macular ischemia generally occur in diabetic retinopathy (DR). This study aims to evaluate the effect of conbercept with 3+ pro re nata (PRN) on macular perfusion status in patients with diabetic macular edema (DME) and quantitatively assess changes in foveal avascular zone (FAZ) areas and capillary density in macular regions by applying optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA). METHODS Fifty patients were divided into ischemic (n = 31) and non-ischemic (n = 19) groups according to the presence of ischemia on OCTA at baseline. All patients received intravitreal injections of 0.5 mg of conbercept with 3+ PRN principle. The FAZ areas and macular vessel density measured using OCTA were evaluated at baseline, 3 months, and 6 months after treatment in both groups. RESULTS At months 3 and 6, the FAZ area in the ischemic group changed from 0.510 ± 0.171 mm2 to 0.441 ± 0.158 mm2 then to 0.427 ± 0.153 mm2 (p = 0.003, p = 0.296); in the non-ischemic group, it remained stable (p = 0.269, p = 0.926). The superficial vessel density changed from 41.1 ± 4.1 to 42.5% ± 4.7% then to 42.6% ± 4.6% (p = 0.043, p = 0.812), and the deep vessel density changed from 40.7 ± 4.4 to 42.3% ± 3.6% then to 42.3% ± 4.7% (p = 0.072, p = 0.961) in the ischemic group. In the non-ischemic group, the superficial vessel density changed from 44.8 ± 3.2 to 46.0% ± 3.5% then to 45.7% ± 3.3% (p = 0.108, p = 0.666), whereas the deep vessel density changed from 43.6 ± 3.6 to 43.8% ± 3.2% then to 43.5% ± 4.5% (p = 0.882, p = 0.736). Reperfusion in macular nonperfusion areas was observed. CONCLUSION Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor treatment may have a positive effect on macular perfusion status. Furthermore, OCTA had advantages in quantifying and calculating blood flow index in the study of macular perfusion status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyi Zhu
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 139 Middle Renmin Rd, Changsha, Hunan 410011 People’s Republic of China
| | - Youling Liang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 139 Middle Renmin Rd, Changsha, Hunan 410011 People’s Republic of China
| | - Bin Yan
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 139 Middle Renmin Rd, Changsha, Hunan 410011 People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhishang Meng
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 139 Middle Renmin Rd, Changsha, Hunan 410011 People’s Republic of China
| | - Kejun Long
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 139 Middle Renmin Rd, Changsha, Hunan 410011 People’s Republic of China
| | - Yiwei Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 139 Middle Renmin Rd, Changsha, Hunan 410011 People’s Republic of China
| | - Jing Luo
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 139 Middle Renmin Rd, Changsha, Hunan 410011 People’s Republic of China
- Hunan Clinical Research Center of Ophthalmic Disease, Changsha, Hunan 410011 People’s Republic of China
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Microglia Activation in Retinal Ischemia Triggers Cytokine and Toll-Like Receptor Response. J Mol Neurosci 2020; 71:527-544. [PMID: 32833183 PMCID: PMC8575759 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-020-01674-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Mechanisms and progression of ischemic injuries in the retina are still incompletely clarified. Therefore, the time course of microglia activation as well as resulting cytokine expression and downstream signaling were investigated. Ischemia was induced in one eye by transiently elevated intraocular pressure (60 min) followed by reperfusion; the other eye served as a control. Eyes were processed for RT-qPCR and immunohistochemistry analyses at 2, 6, 12, and 24 h as well as at 3 and 7 days. Already 2 h after ischemia, more microglia/macrophages were in an active state in the ischemia group. This was accompanied by an upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, like IL-1β, IL-6, TNFα, and TGFβ. Activation of TLR3, TLR2, and the adaptor molecule Myd88 was also observed after 2 h. NFκB revealed a wave-like activation pattern. In addition, an extrinsic caspase pathway activation was noted at early time points, while enhanced numbers of cleaved caspase 3+ cells could be observed in ischemic retinae throughout the study. Retinal ischemia induced an early and strong microglia/macrophage response as well as cytokine and apoptotic activation processes. Moreover, in early and late ischemic damaging processes, TLR expression and downstream signaling were involved, suggesting an involvement in neuronal death in ischemic retinae. Graphical Abstract.
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Retinal ischemia triggers early microglia activation in the optic nerve followed by neurofilament degeneration. Exp Eye Res 2020; 198:108133. [PMID: 32645332 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2020.108133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Retinal ischemia leads to an early severe damage of the retina and thus plays an important role in eye diseases such as angle-closure glaucoma or retinal vascular occlusion. In retinal diseases, there is common sense about the affection of the optic nerve by ischemic injury. However, the exact dynamic processes of this optic nerve degeneration are mainly unclear. In this study, retinal ischemia was induced in one eye of Brown-Norway rats by raising the intraocular pressure 60 min to 140 mmHg followed by natural reperfusion. Optic nerves were analyzed at six different points in time: 2, 6, 12, and 24 h as well as 3 and 7 days after ischemic injury. Cell infiltration and moreover signs of tissue demyelination and dissolution were noticed in optic nerves 7 days after ischemia (hematoxylin & eosin: p < 0.001, luxol fast blue: p = 0.04). Although microglial activation was verified already from 12 h on after ischemia (p = 0.030), the beginning of a structural degeneration of the neurofilament was seen at 3 days (p = 0.02). Interestingly, proliferative microglia were present later on (7 days: p = 0.017). At this point, the number of total microglia was also increased in ischemic nerves (p = 0.003). Concluding, our data indicate that not only retinal tissue is affected by an ischemia, the optic nerve also demonstrates progressive damage. Interestingly, a microglia activation was noted days before structural damage became visible.
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Peresypkina A, Pazhinsky A, Danilenko L, Lugovskoy S, Pokrovskii M, Beskhmelnitsyna E, Solovev N, Pobeda A, Korokin M, Levkova E, Gubareva V, Korokina L, Martynova O, Soldatov V, Pokrovskii V. Retinoprotective Effect of 2-Ethyl-3-hydroxy-6-methylpyridine Nicotinate. BIOLOGY 2020; 9:biology9030045. [PMID: 32121045 PMCID: PMC7150877 DOI: 10.3390/biology9030045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Revised: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
An important task of pharmacology is to find effective agents to improve retinal microcirculation and resistance to ischemia. The purpose of the study is to pharmacologically evaluate the retinoprotective effect of 2-ethyl-3-hydroxy-6-methylpyridine nicotinate in a rat model of retinal ischemia–reperfusion. A retinal ischemia–reperfusion model was used, in which an increase in intraocular pressure (IOP) to 110 mmHg was carried out within 30 min. The retinoprotective effect of 2-ethyl-3-hydroxy-6-methylpyridine nicotinate at a dose of 3.8 mg/kg, in comparison with nicotinic acid at a dose of 2 mg/kg and emoxipine at a dose of 2 mg/kg, was estimated by the changes in the eye fundus during ophthalmoscopy, the retinal microcirculation level with laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF), and electroretinography (ERG) after 72 h of reperfusion. The use of 2-ethyl-3-hydroxy-6-methylpyridine nicotinate prevented the development of ischemic injuries in the fundus and led to an increase in the retinal microcirculation level to 747 (median) (lower and upper quartiles: 693;760) perfusion units (p = 0.0002) in comparison with the group that underwent no treatment. In the group with the studied substance, the b-wave amplitude increased significantly (p = 0.0022), and the b/a coefficient increased reliably (p = 0.0002) in comparison with the group with no treatment. Thus, 2-ethyl-3-hydroxy-6-methylpyridine nicotinate has established itself as a potential retinoprotector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Peresypkina
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Medicine, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (A.P.); (L.D.); (S.L.); (M.P.); (E.B.); (N.S.); (M.K.); (E.L.); (V.G.); (L.K.)
- Research Institute of Pharmacology of Living Systems, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (O.M.); (V.S.); (V.P.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +7-903-885-86-19
| | - Anton Pazhinsky
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Medicine, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (A.P.); (L.D.); (S.L.); (M.P.); (E.B.); (N.S.); (M.K.); (E.L.); (V.G.); (L.K.)
| | - Lyudmila Danilenko
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Medicine, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (A.P.); (L.D.); (S.L.); (M.P.); (E.B.); (N.S.); (M.K.); (E.L.); (V.G.); (L.K.)
| | - Sergey Lugovskoy
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Medicine, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (A.P.); (L.D.); (S.L.); (M.P.); (E.B.); (N.S.); (M.K.); (E.L.); (V.G.); (L.K.)
| | - Mikhail Pokrovskii
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Medicine, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (A.P.); (L.D.); (S.L.); (M.P.); (E.B.); (N.S.); (M.K.); (E.L.); (V.G.); (L.K.)
- Research Institute of Pharmacology of Living Systems, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (O.M.); (V.S.); (V.P.)
| | - Evgeniya Beskhmelnitsyna
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Medicine, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (A.P.); (L.D.); (S.L.); (M.P.); (E.B.); (N.S.); (M.K.); (E.L.); (V.G.); (L.K.)
| | - Nikolai Solovev
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Medicine, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (A.P.); (L.D.); (S.L.); (M.P.); (E.B.); (N.S.); (M.K.); (E.L.); (V.G.); (L.K.)
| | - Anna Pobeda
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Medicine, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (A.P.); (L.D.); (S.L.); (M.P.); (E.B.); (N.S.); (M.K.); (E.L.); (V.G.); (L.K.)
| | - Mikhail Korokin
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Medicine, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (A.P.); (L.D.); (S.L.); (M.P.); (E.B.); (N.S.); (M.K.); (E.L.); (V.G.); (L.K.)
- Research Institute of Pharmacology of Living Systems, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (O.M.); (V.S.); (V.P.)
| | - Elena Levkova
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Medicine, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (A.P.); (L.D.); (S.L.); (M.P.); (E.B.); (N.S.); (M.K.); (E.L.); (V.G.); (L.K.)
| | - Victoria Gubareva
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Medicine, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (A.P.); (L.D.); (S.L.); (M.P.); (E.B.); (N.S.); (M.K.); (E.L.); (V.G.); (L.K.)
| | - Liliya Korokina
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Medicine, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (A.P.); (L.D.); (S.L.); (M.P.); (E.B.); (N.S.); (M.K.); (E.L.); (V.G.); (L.K.)
| | - Olga Martynova
- Research Institute of Pharmacology of Living Systems, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (O.M.); (V.S.); (V.P.)
| | - Vladislav Soldatov
- Research Institute of Pharmacology of Living Systems, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (O.M.); (V.S.); (V.P.)
| | - Vladimir Pokrovskii
- Research Institute of Pharmacology of Living Systems, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod 308015, Russia; (O.M.); (V.S.); (V.P.)
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Deng C, Chen S, Li X, Luo H, Zhang Q, Hu P, Wang F, Xiong C, Sun T, Zhang X. Role of the PGE2 receptor in ischemia-reperfusion injury of the rat retina. Mol Vis 2020; 26:36-47. [PMID: 32165825 PMCID: PMC7043643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To investigate the function and expression of the PGE2 receptors EP1-4 in rat retinal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury and to determine the regulatory role of resveratrol (RES) in this process. Methods In vitro, we stimulated primary astrocytes extracted from the optic disc of rats with epidermal growth factor (EGF) and RES, and detected the location of EP1-4 expression with immunofluorescence. The expression of antiglial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), EGF receptor (EGFR), inducible NOS (iNOS), and EP1-4 in astrocytes was detected with western blotting. In vivo, we established an I/R injury model and RES treatment model with Sprague-Dawley rats. Changes in the thickness of the inner retina were observed with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining. EP1-4 localization in the retina was observed with immunohistochemistry. The expression of COX-2, iNOS, and EP1-4 in the control and model groups was detected with western blotting. Results In this study, immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry showed that EP1-4 are expressed in astrocytes and the rat retina. EGF stimulation increased the expression of EGFR, iNOS, EP1, EP2, and EP4 in astrocytes. The expression of EP1-4 was statistically significantly increased on the third day after model induction, and EP1-4 expression decreased to normal levels on day 7. EGF and RES mediated the decrease in the expression of EP2. RES treatment significantly reduced retinal damage and RGC loss, as demonstrated by the relatively intact tissue structure on day 7 observed with H&E staining. Moreover, inflammation was associated with this I/R injury model, as demonstrated by the early induction of proinflammatory mediators, and this inflammation was significantly attenuated after RES treatment. Conclusions These results indicate that the COX-2/PGE2/EPs pathway is involved in retinal damage and astrocyte inflammation. In addition, the results suggest that the neuroprotective effects of RES may be associated with decreased production of inflammatory mediators. These results suggest that the PGE2 receptor may be a key factor in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, and that RES may be used as a possible therapeutic strategy for glaucoma.
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Levkova EA, Pazhinsky AL, Lugovskoy SS, Peresypkina AA, Bashuk VV, Pazhinsky LV, Martynov MA, Beskhmelnitsyna EA. Correction of retinal ischemic injuries by using non-selective imidazoline receptor agonists in the experiment. RESEARCH RESULTS IN PHARMACOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.3897/rrpharmacology.5.38498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Retinoprotective effects of non-selective imidazoline receptor agonists: potassium salt of С7070; sodium salt of С7070; С7070 processed with CO2 – were investigated in comparison with C7070 on the retinal ischemia-reperfusion model in rats.
Materials and methods: The protective effects of the substances were evaluated by using ophthalmoscopy, laser Doppler flowmetry, electroretinography, histological and morphometric studies of retinal layers.
Results and discussion: The most pronounced retinoprotective effect was observed in potassium salt of C7070 at a dose of 10 mg/kg, which expresses in approaching the normal eye fundus image, achieving the target values of the retinal blood flow, b/a coefficient, and reaching the norm values of morphometric indicators. A less pronounced protective effect was found in sodium salt of C7070 at a dose of 10 mg/kg, which expresses in a 71% decrease (p < 0.05) in semi-quantitative assessment of the eye fundus changes, an increase in the retinal blood flow level by 70.4% (p < 0.05), in b/a by 94% (p < 0.05) in comparison with the group without correction, and reaching the norm of the morphometric indicators. A retinoprotective effect of the substance C7070 processed with CO2 at a dose of 10 mg/kg is inferior to that of the sodium salt of C7070.
Conclusion: The retinoprotective activity of the substances is expressed in descending order: potassium salt of С7070 (10 mg/kg) ≈ С7070 (50 mg/kg) > sodium salt of С7070 (10 mg/kg) > С7070 processed with CO2 (10 mg/kg) ≈ С7070 (10 mg/kg). Injections of glibenclamide leveled the neuroretinoprotective effects of the substances to varying degrees, which confirmed the participation of ATP-dependent potassium channels in the implementation of these effects.
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20
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Reinehr S, Gomes SC, Gassel CJ, Asaad MA, Stute G, Schargus M, Dick HB, Joachim SC. Intravitreal Therapy Against the Complement Factor C5 Prevents Retinal Degeneration in an Experimental Autoimmune Glaucoma Model. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:1381. [PMID: 31849650 PMCID: PMC6901014 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.01381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In glaucoma, studies revealed an involvement of the complement system. In an experimental autoimmune glaucoma model, immunization with an optic nerve homogenate antigen (ONA) led to retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss, while intraocular pressure (IOP) remained unchanged. Here, we investigated the therapeutic effect of a complement system inhibition in this model. Hence, rats were immunized with ONA and compared to controls. In one eye of the ONA animals, an antibody against complement factor C5 was intravitreally injected (15 μmol: ONA+C5-I or 25 μmol: ONA+C5-II) before immunization and then every two weeks. IOP was measured weekly. After 6 weeks, spectral-domain optical coherence tomographies (SD-OCT), electroretinograms (ERG), immunohistochemistry, and quantitative real-time PCR analyses were performed. IOP and retinal thickness remained unchanged within all groups. The a-wave amplitudes were not altered in the ONA and ONA+C5-I groups, whereas a decrease was noted in ONA+C5-II animals (p < 0.05). ONA immunization provoked a significant decrease of the b-wave amplitude (p < 0.05), which could be preserved in ONA+C5-I, but not in ONA+C5-II animals. ONA animals showed a loss of RGCs (p = 0.001), while ONA+C5-I and ONA+C5-II retinae had similar cell counts as controls. A significant downregulation of apoptotic Bax/Bcl2 mRNA was noted in ONA+C5-I retinae (p = 0.02). Significantly more C3+ and MAC+ cells were observed in ONA animals (p < 0.001). The amount of C3+ cells in both treatment groups was significantly increased (p < 0.01), while the number of MAC+ cells in the treated retinas did not differ from controls. The number of activated microglia cells remained unchanged in ONA animals, but was increased in the treatment groups (p < 0.05). Recoverin+ cells were diminished in ONA animals (p = 0.049), but not in treated ones. Rho mRNA was downregulated in ONA and in ONA+C5-II retinas (both p = 0.014). Less opsin+ cones were observed in ONA animals (p = 0.009), but not in the treated groups. Our results indicate that the C5 antibody inhibits activation of the complement system, preventing the loss of retinal function as well as RGC, cone bipolar, and photoreceptor loss. Therefore, this approach might be a suitable new treatment for glaucoma patients, in which immune dysregulation plays an important factor for the development and progression of glaucoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Reinehr
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Sara C Gomes
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Caroline J Gassel
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - M Ali Asaad
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Gesa Stute
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Marc Schargus
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany.,Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital Duesseldorf, Heinrich-Heine-University Duesseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - H Burkhard Dick
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Stephanie C Joachim
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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Xiao M, Liu Y, Wang L, Liang J, Wang T, Zhai Y, Wang Y, Liu S, Liu W, Luo X, Wang F, Sun X. Intraocular VEGF deprivation induces degeneration and fibrogenic response in retina. FASEB J 2019; 33:13920-13934. [DOI: 10.1096/fj.201901283rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Meichun Xiao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lingyu Wang
- GloriousMed Technology Company, Limited, Shanghai, China
| | - Jian Liang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Tianjun Wang
- School of Life Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Yuanqi Zhai
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yafang Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Shu Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenjia Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xueting Luo
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Fenghua Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaodong Sun
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai, China
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Reinehr S, Koch D, Weiss M, Froemel F, Voss C, Dick HB, Fuchshofer R, Joachim SC. Loss of retinal ganglion cells in a new genetic mouse model for primary open-angle glaucoma. J Cell Mol Med 2019; 23:5497-5507. [PMID: 31144440 PMCID: PMC6653331 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.14433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary open‐angle glaucoma (POAG) is one of the most common causes for blindness worldwide. Although an elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) is the main risk factor, the exact pathology remained indistinguishable. Therefore, it is necessary to have appropriate models to investigate these mechanisms. Here, we analysed a transgenic glaucoma mouse model (βB1‐CTGF) to elucidate new possible mechanisms of the disease. Therefore, IOP was measured in βB1‐CTGF and wildtype mice at 5, 10 and 15 weeks of age. At 5 and 10 weeks, the IOP in both groups were comparable (P > 0.05). After 15 weeks, a significant elevated IOP was measured in βB1‐CTGF mice (P < 0.001). At 15 weeks, electroretinogram measurements were performed and both the a‐ and b‐wave amplitudes were significantly decreased in βB1‐CTGF retinae (both P < 0.01). Significantly fewer Brn‐3a+ retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) were observed in the βB1‐CTGF group on flatmounts (P = 0.02), cross‐sections (P < 0.001) and also via quantitative real‐time PCR (P = 0.02). Additionally, significantly more cleaved caspase 3+ RGCs were seen in the βB1‐CTGF group (P = 0.002). Furthermore, a decrease in recoverin+ cells was observable in the βB1‐CTGF animals (P = 0.004). Accordingly, a significant down‐regulation of Recoverin mRNA levels were noted (P < 0.001). Gfap expression, on the other hand, was higher in βB1‐CTGF retinae (P = 0.023). Additionally, more glutamine synthetase signal was noted (P = 0.04). Although no alterations were observed regarding photoreceptors via immunohistology, a significant decrease of Rhodopsin (P = 0.003) and Opsin mRNA (P = 0.03) was noted. We therefore assume that the βB1‐CTGF mouse could serve as an excellent model for better understanding the pathomechanisms in POAG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Reinehr
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Dennis Koch
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Maximilian Weiss
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Franziska Froemel
- Institute of Human Anatomy and Embryology, University Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Christina Voss
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - H Burkhard Dick
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Rudolf Fuchshofer
- Institute of Human Anatomy and Embryology, University Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Stephanie C Joachim
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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Transfer of the Experimental Autoimmune Glaucoma Model from Rats to Mice-New Options to Study Glaucoma Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20102563. [PMID: 31137749 PMCID: PMC6566658 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20102563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2019] [Revised: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies have suggested an involvement of the immune system in glaucoma. Hence, a rat experimental autoimmune glaucoma model (EAG) was developed to investigate the role of the immune response. Here, we transferred this model into mice. Either 0.8 mg/mL of the optic nerve antigen homogenate (ONA; ONA 0.8) or 1.0 mg/mL ONA (ONA 1.0) were injected in 129/Sv mice. Controls received sodium chloride. Before and 6 weeks after immunization, the intraocular pressure (IOP) was measured. At 6 weeks, retinal neurons, glia cells, and synapses were analyzed via immunohistology and quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR). Additionally, optic nerves were examined. The IOP stayed in the normal physiological range throughout the study (p > 0.05). A significant reduction of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) was noted in both immunized groups (p < 0.001). Remodeling of glutamatergic and GABAergic synapses was seen in ONA 1.0 retinas. Furthermore, both ONA groups revealed optic nerve degeneration and macrogliosis (all: p < 0.001). An increase of activated microglia was noted in ONA retinas and optic nerves (p < 0.05). Both ONA concentrations led to RGC loss and optic nerve degeneration. Therefore, the EAG model was successfully transferred from rats to mice. In further studies, transgenic knockout mice can be used to investigate the pathomechanisms of glaucoma more precisely.
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Palmhof M, Frank V, Rappard P, Kortenhorn E, Demuth J, Biert N, Stute G, Dick HB, Joachim SC. From Ganglion Cell to Photoreceptor Layer: Timeline of Deterioration in a Rat Ischemia/Reperfusion Model. Front Cell Neurosci 2019; 13:174. [PMID: 31133806 PMCID: PMC6524469 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2019.00174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuronal damage and impaired vision in different retinal disorders are induced, among other factors, by ischemia/reperfusion (I/R). Since the mechanisms and the progression of ischemic injury are still not completely clarified, a timeline of this retinal degeneration is needed. In this study, we investigated protein and mRNA alterations at 2, 6, 12, and 24 h as well as 3 and 7 days after ischemia to determine the course of an ischemic insult through the whole retina. Moreover, functional analyses were performed at later stages. We detected a significant functional loss of cells in the inner nuclear layer and photoreceptors at 3 and 7 days. Additionally, the thickness of the whole retina was decreased at these points in time, indicating a severe degradation of all retinal layers. Immunohistological and qRT-PCR analyses of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), glial cells, AII amacrine, cone and rod bipolar as well as cone and rod photoreceptor cells confirmed this first assumption. Our results show that all investigated cell types were damaged by ischemia induction. Especially RGCs, cone bipolar cells, and photoreceptor cones are very sensitive to I/R. These cells were lost shortly after ischemia induction with a progressive course up to 7 days. In addition, Müller cell gliosis was observed over the entire period of time. These results provide evidence, that I/R induces damage of the whole retina at early stages and increases over time. In conclusion, our study could demonstrate the intense impact of an ischemic injury. The ischemic defect spreads across the whole retina right up to the outer layers in the long-term and thus seems to impair the visual perception already during the stimulus processing. In addition, our findings indicate that the cone pathway seems to be particularly affected by this damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Palmhof
- Experimental Eye Research, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Viktoria Frank
- Experimental Eye Research, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Pascal Rappard
- Experimental Eye Research, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Emely Kortenhorn
- Experimental Eye Research, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Julia Demuth
- Experimental Eye Research, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Nora Biert
- Experimental Eye Research, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Gesa Stute
- Experimental Eye Research, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - H Burkhard Dick
- Experimental Eye Research, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Stephanie C Joachim
- Experimental Eye Research, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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Jiang MN, Zhou YY, Hua DH, Yang JY, Hu ML, Xing YQ. Vagal Nerve Stimulation Attenuates Ischemia-Reperfusion Induced Retina Dysfunction in Acute Ocular Hypertension. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:87. [PMID: 30804746 PMCID: PMC6378858 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2018] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: The present study aimed to investigate whether cervical vagal nerve stimulation (VNS) could prevent retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss and retinal dysfunction after ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. Methods: First, rats were randomly divided into sham group (n = 4) and VNS group (n = 12). Activation of the nodose ganglia (NOG), nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), superior salivatory nucleus (SSN), and pterygopalatine ganglion (PPG) neural circuit were evaluated by c-fos expression at 0 h after sham VNS and at 0 h (n = 4), 6 h (n = 4), 72 h (n = 4) after VNS. Secondly, rats were randomly assigned to I/R group (pressure-induced retinal ischemia for 1 h and reperfusion for 1 h in the right eye, n = 16) and I/R+VNS group (right cervical VNS for 2 h during the I/R period, n = 16). The left eye of each rat served as a control. Electroretinogram (ERG), RGC numbers, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) levels in retina were determined. Additionally, the level of VIP in PPG was evaluated. Results: In the first part of the study, compared with the sham group, the VNS group exhibited significantly increased expression of c-fos in NOG, NTS, SSN, and PPG tissues at 0, 6, and 72 h. In the second part of the study, compared with left eyes, retinal function in right eyes (as assessed by the a-wave, b-wave and the oscillatory potential amplitudes of ERG and RGC data) was significantly decreased by I/R. The decreased retinal function was attenuated by VNS. In addition, I/R induced an increase in inflammation, which was reflected by elevated TNF-α expression in the retina. VNS significantly attenuated the increase in I/R-induced inflammation. Moreover, VIP expression in the retina and PPG, which may contribute to the inhibition of the inflammatory response, was significantly increased after VNS. Conclusion: VNS could protect against retinal I/R injury by downregulating TNF-α. Upregulation of VIP expression due to activation of the NOG-NTS-SSN-PPG neural circuit may underlie to the protective effects of VNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Nan Jiang
- Eye Center, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yu-Yang Zhou
- Eye Center, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Di-Hao Hua
- Eye Center, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Jia-Yi Yang
- Eye Center, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Man-Li Hu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yi-Qiao Xing
- Eye Center, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
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