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Roda E, De Luca F, Priori EC, Ratto D, Pinelli S, Corradini E, Mozzoni P, Poli D, Mazzini G, Bottone MG, Gatti AM, Marti M, Locatelli CA, Rossi P, Bottai D. The Designer Drug αPHP Affected Cell Proliferation and Triggered Deathly Mechanisms in Murine Neural Stem/Progenitor Cells. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:1225. [PMID: 37759624 PMCID: PMC10525791 DOI: 10.3390/biology12091225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Increasing reports of neurological and psychiatric outcomes due to psychostimulant synthetic cathinones (SCs) have recently raised public concern. However, the understanding of neurotoxic mechanisms is still lacking, particularly for the under-investigated αPHP, one of the major MDPV derivatives. In particular, its effects on neural stem/progenitor cell cultures (NSPCs) are still unexplored. Therefore, in the current in vitro study, the effects of increasing αPHP concentrations (25-2000 μM), on cell viability/proliferation, morphology/ultrastructure, genotoxicity and cell death pathways, have been evaluated after exposure in murine NSPCs, using a battery of complementary techniques, i.e., MTT and clonogenic assay, flow cytometry, immunocytochemistry, TEM, and patch clamp. We revealed that αPHP was able to induce a dose-dependent significant decrease of the viability, proliferation and clonal capability of the NSPCs, paralleled by the resting membrane potential depolarization and apoptotic/autophagic/necroptotic pathway activation. Moreover, ultrastructural alterations were clearly observed. Overall, our current findings demonstrate that αPHP, damaging NSPCs and the morpho-functional fundamental units of adult neurogenic niches may affect neurogenesis, possibly triggering long-lasting, irreversible CNS damage. The present investigation could pave the way for a broadened understanding of SCs toxicology, needed to establish an appropriate treatment for NPS and the potential consequences for public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Roda
- Laboratory of Clinical & Experimental Toxicology, Pavia Poison Centre, National Toxicology Information Centre, Toxicology Unit, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, 27100 Pavia, Italy (C.A.L.)
| | - Fabrizio De Luca
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology “L. Spallanzani”, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (F.D.L.); (P.R.)
| | - Erica Cecilia Priori
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology “L. Spallanzani”, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (F.D.L.); (P.R.)
| | - Daniela Ratto
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology “L. Spallanzani”, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (F.D.L.); (P.R.)
| | - Silvana Pinelli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy
| | - Emilia Corradini
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy
| | - Paola Mozzoni
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy
| | - Diana Poli
- INAIL Research, Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Epidemiology and Hygiene, Via Fontana Candida, 1, 00078 Monte Porzio Catone, Italy
| | - Giuliano Mazzini
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology “L. Spallanzani”, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (F.D.L.); (P.R.)
- Institute of Molecular Genetics—CNR (National Research Council), 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Maria Grazia Bottone
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology “L. Spallanzani”, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (F.D.L.); (P.R.)
| | - Anna Maria Gatti
- Laboratory of Clinical & Experimental Toxicology, Pavia Poison Centre, National Toxicology Information Centre, Toxicology Unit, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, 27100 Pavia, Italy (C.A.L.)
| | - Matteo Marti
- Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy;
- Collaborative Centre for the Italian National Early Warning System, Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Carlo Alessandro Locatelli
- Laboratory of Clinical & Experimental Toxicology, Pavia Poison Centre, National Toxicology Information Centre, Toxicology Unit, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, 27100 Pavia, Italy (C.A.L.)
| | - Paola Rossi
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology “L. Spallanzani”, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (F.D.L.); (P.R.)
| | - Daniele Bottai
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Section of Pharmacology and Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy;
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Hajnoczky N, George D. A Rare Case of Methamphetamine-Induced Severe Rhabdomyolysis and Compartment Syndrome. Cureus 2023; 15:e39804. [PMID: 37398711 PMCID: PMC10313496 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.39804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Mild cases of drug induced rhabdomyolysis are well documented, however severe cases require additional investigation. Here, we report a case of a 40-year-old female with no pertinent medical history who presented to the emergency department with bilateral leg weakness after recent polysubstance use. During the 26 days of hospitalization, the patient had three days of sustained creatine phosphokinase level of >42,000 U/L, oliguric acute renal failure treated with emergent dialysis, compartment syndrome requiring bilateral thigh and leg fasciotomies and required discharge to a long-term hemodialysis rehab center for ongoing management. The patient was diagnosed with a rare and life-threatening complication of methamphetamine (MA)-induced rhabdomyolysis. The relationship between MA-induced rhabdomyolysis and compartment syndrome is far from a novel concept. However, nearly all published cases demonstrate mild kidney injury and precipitating factors of agitated delirium and hyperpyrexia as the driving force for the compartment syndrome. In this report, we present a successfully treated, severe case of MA-induced kidney failure and rhabdomyolysis leading to compartment syndrome without clear indications of psychomotor agitation and hyperpyrexia. This report aims to highlight the importance of quick recognition of a rare methamphetamine side effect and the need for hasty response to limit complications and decrease hospital stay. Perhaps in the future, rhabdomyolysis etiology and severity may drive specific treatment plans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora Hajnoczky
- Internal Medicine, Einstein Healthcare Network, East Norriton, USA
| | - Daniel George
- Nephrology, Einstein Healthcare Network, East Norriton, USA
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Espinosa-Velasco M, Reguilón MD, Bellot M, Nadal-Gratacós N, Berzosa X, Gómez-Canela C, Rodríguez-Arias M, Camarasa J, Escubedo E, Pubill D, López-Arnau R. Repeated administration of N-ethyl-pentedrone induces increased aggression and impairs social exploration after withdrawal in mice. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2022; 117:110562. [PMID: 35500841 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2022.110562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
N-ethyl-pentedrone (NEPD, 2-(ethylamino)-1-phenyl-1-pentanone) is one of the latest synthetic cathinone derivatives that emerged into the illicit drug market. This drug has psychostimulant properties and has been related with several intoxications and even fatalities. However, information about the consequences of its acute and repeated consumption is lacking. Thus, the aim of our study was to investigate the behavioral effects after both acute and repeated NEPD exposure as well as the neurochemical changes. Male OF1 mice were treated with an acute dose (1, 3 or 10 mg/kg, i.p.) or received repeated injections of these doses (twice/day, 5 days) of NEPD. Shortly after drug-exposure or during drug-withdrawal, anxiety-like behavior, aggressiveness, social interaction, depressive-like symptoms, body weight and temperature were assessed. Also, monoamine synthesis enzymes, levels of neurotransmitters and their precursors and main metabolites, as well as ΔFosB, were determined in striatum and prefrontal cortex from post-mortem tissue. Acute administration of NEPD induced anxiolytic effects and reduced social exploration whereas during withdrawal after repeated administration the anxiolytic effect had vanished, and the reduced social exploration was still present and accompanied with increased aggressive behavior. Moreover, NEPD (10 mg/kg) induced slight hyperthermia and reduced weight gain during the repeated administration, whereas increased locomotor activity and lack of depressive symptoms were found during withdrawal. This was accompanied by increased plasma corticosterone and decrease in striatal dopamine. Finally, the long-lasting and robust increase in ΔFosB levels found in striatum after NEPD chronic exposure suggests a high risk of dependence. The increased aggressivity and locomotor activity, together with this potential of inducing dependence justify a warning about the risks of consumption of NEPD if translated to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Espinosa-Velasco
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Spain
| | - Marina D Reguilón
- Unit of Research Psychobiology of Drug Dependence, Department of Psychobiology, Facultad de Psicología, Universitat de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Marina Bellot
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Applied (Chromatography Section), School of Engineering, Institut Químic de Sarrià - Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Núria Nadal-Gratacós
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Pharmaceutical Chemistry Group (GQF), IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Xavier Berzosa
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Group (GQF), IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristian Gómez-Canela
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Applied (Chromatography Section), School of Engineering, Institut Químic de Sarrià - Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Rodríguez-Arias
- Unit of Research Psychobiology of Drug Dependence, Department of Psychobiology, Facultad de Psicología, Universitat de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Jordi Camarasa
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Spain
| | - Elena Escubedo
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Spain
| | - David Pubill
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Spain.
| | - Raúl López-Arnau
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Spain
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A review on the mitochondrial toxicity of “ecstasy” (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, MDMA). Curr Res Toxicol 2022; 3:100075. [PMID: 35651589 PMCID: PMC9149009 DOI: 10.1016/j.crtox.2022.100075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
in vitro and in vivo studies on MDMA mitochondria toxicity are revised. MDMA causes ATP depletion and inhibition of mitochondrial complexes. MDMA or its metabolites impair mitochondrial trafficking in vitro. MDMA evokes deletion on mitochondrial DNA in vivo. A direct translation to humans is hampered by the doses and concentrations of MDMA.
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or “ecstasy”) is a drug of abuse used by millions worldwide. MDMA human abuse and dependence is well described, but addictive properties are not always consistent among studies. This amphetamine is a substrate type releaser, binding to monoamine transporters, leading to a pronounced release of serotonin and noradrenaline and to a minor extent dopamine. The toxicity of MDMA is well studied at the pre-clinical level, with neurotoxicity and hepatotoxicity being particularly described. In this review, we describe the most relevant MDMA effects at the mitochondrial level found in in vitro and in vivo models, these later conducted in mice and rats. Most of these reports focus on the mitochondria of brain or liver. In in vitro models, MDMA causes depletion of ATP levels and inhibition of mitochondrial complex I and III, loss in mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) and induction of mitochondrial permeability transition. The involvement of mitochondria in the apoptotic cell death evoked by MDMA has also been shown, such as the release of cytochrome c. Additionally, MDMA or its metabolites impaired mitochondrial trafficking and increased the fragmentation of axonal mitochondria. In animal studies, MDMA decreased mitochondrial complex I activity and decreased ATP levels. Moreover, MDMA-evoked oxidative stress has been shown to cause deletion on mitochondrial DNA and impairment in mitochondrial protein synthesis. Although the concentrations and doses used in some studies do not always correlate to the human scenario, the mitochondrial abnormalities evoked by MDMA are well described and are in part responsible for its mechanism of toxicity.
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Correia B, Fernandes J, Botica MJ, Ferreira C, Quintas A. Novel Psychoactive Substances: The Razor's Edge between Therapeutical Potential and Psychoactive Recreational Misuse. MEDICINES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 9:medicines9030019. [PMID: 35323718 PMCID: PMC8950629 DOI: 10.3390/medicines9030019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) are compounds of natural and synthetic origin, similar to traditional drugs of abuse. NPS are involved in a contemporary trend whose origin lies in a thinner balance between legitimate therapeutic drug research and legislative control. The contemporary NPS trend resulted from the replacement of MDMA by synthetic cathinones in 'ecstasy' during the 2000s. The most common NPS are synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cathinones. Interestingly, during the last 50 years, these two classes of NPS have been the object of scientific research for a set of health conditions. METHODS Searches were conducted in the online database PubMed using boolean equations. RESULTS Synthetic cannabinoids displayed protective and therapeutic effects for inflammatory, neurodegenerative and oncologic pathologies, activating the immune system and reducing inflammation. Synthetic cathinones act similarly to amphetamine-type stimulants and can be used for depression and chronic fatigue. CONCLUSIONS Despite the scientific advances in this field of research, pharmacological application of NPS is being jeopardized by fatalities associated with their recreational use. This review addresses the scientific achievements of these two classes of NPS and the toxicological data, ending with a reflection on Illicit and NPS control frames.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Correia
- Laboratório de Ciências Forenses e Psicológicas Egas Moniz, Campus Universitário—Quinta da Granja, Monte de Caparica, 2825-084 Caparica, Portugal; (B.C.); (J.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Joana Fernandes
- Laboratório de Ciências Forenses e Psicológicas Egas Moniz, Campus Universitário—Quinta da Granja, Monte de Caparica, 2825-084 Caparica, Portugal; (B.C.); (J.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Maria João Botica
- Instituto Português de Oncologia de Lisboa Francisco Gentil (IPO), Alameda Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Carla Ferreira
- Laboratório de Ciências Forenses e Psicológicas Egas Moniz, Campus Universitário—Quinta da Granja, Monte de Caparica, 2825-084 Caparica, Portugal; (B.C.); (J.F.); (C.F.)
- Molecular Pathology and Forensic Biochemistry Laboratory, Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz, 2825-084 Caparica, Portugal
- Faculty of Medicine of Porto University, Rua Professor Lima Basto, 1099-023 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Alexandre Quintas
- Laboratório de Ciências Forenses e Psicológicas Egas Moniz, Campus Universitário—Quinta da Granja, Monte de Caparica, 2825-084 Caparica, Portugal; (B.C.); (J.F.); (C.F.)
- Molecular Pathology and Forensic Biochemistry Laboratory, Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz, 2825-084 Caparica, Portugal
- Correspondence:
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Lenzi M, Cocchi V, Gasperini S, Arfè R, Marti M, Hrelia P. Evaluation of Cytotoxic and Mutagenic Effects of the Synthetic Cathinones Mexedrone, α-PVP and α-PHP. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22126320. [PMID: 34204826 PMCID: PMC8231654 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22126320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mexedrone, α-PVP and α-PHP are synthetic cathinones. They can be considered amphetamine-like substances with a stimulating effect. Actually, studies showing their impact on DNA are totally absent. Therefore, in order to fill this gap, aim of the present work was to evaluate their mutagenicity on TK6 cells. On the basis of cytotoxicity and cytostasis results, we selected the concentrations (35–100 µM) to be used in the further analysis. We used the micronucleus (MN) as indicator of genetic damage and analyzed the MNi frequency fold increase by flow cytometry. Mexedrone demonstrated its mutagenic potential contrary to the other two compounds; we then proceeded by repeating the analyzes in the presence of extrinsic metabolic activation in order to check if it was possible to totally exclude the mutagenic capacity for α-PVP and α-PHP. The results demonstrated instead the mutagenicity of their metabolites. We then evaluated reactive oxygen species (ROS) induction as a possible mechanism at the basis of the highlighted effects but the results did not show a statistically significant increase in ROS levels for any of the tested substances. Anyway, our outcomes emphasize the importance of mutagenicity evaluation for a complete assessment of the risk associated with synthetic cathinones exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monia Lenzi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy; (M.L.); (V.C.); (S.G.); (P.H.)
| | - Veronica Cocchi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy; (M.L.); (V.C.); (S.G.); (P.H.)
| | - Sofia Gasperini
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy; (M.L.); (V.C.); (S.G.); (P.H.)
| | - Raffaella Arfè
- Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, Department of Translational Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy;
| | - Matteo Marti
- Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, Department of Translational Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy;
- Collaborative Center for the Italian National Early Warning System, Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | - Patrizia Hrelia
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy; (M.L.); (V.C.); (S.G.); (P.H.)
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Al-Qadhi G, Mubarak R. Qualitative ultrastructural analysis of the submandibular salivary glands after administration of khat: in vivo study. BMC Res Notes 2021; 14:180. [PMID: 33985564 PMCID: PMC8120822 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-021-05595-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Khat (Catha edulis Forssk) plant has been widely chewed for its psychostimulatory effects in the African and Arabian Peninsula, particularly in Yemen. Considering the khat leaves are gradually chewed without swallowing, while its active constituents are extracted into saliva, studying the effect of khat on salivary glands is necessary. This work is an extension of the previously published work that studied the effect of khat extract on the rats' submandibular salivary glands in terms of histological and immunohistochemical evaluations. The current research note aimed to better understand this effect on the ultrastructure of submandibular salivary gland cells by using transmission electron microscope. Results Oral administration of khat extract produced degenerative changes in the secretory and ductal cells of rats' submandibular salivary glands. These changes involved irregular boundaries of variable sized-nuclei, dilated RER, cytoplasmic vacuoles as well as swollen and degenerated mitochondria. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13104-021-05595-8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gamilah Al-Qadhi
- Department of Basic Dental Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Science and Technology, Taiz, Yemen.
| | - Rabab Mubarak
- Department of Oral Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, Cairo University, Cairo, 11553, Egypt
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Waldman W, Kabata PM, Dines AM, Wood DM, Yates C, Heyerdahl F, Hovda KE, Giraudon I, Dargan PI, Sein Anand J. Rhabdomyolysis related to acute recreational drug toxicity-A Euro-DEN study. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0246297. [PMID: 33705425 PMCID: PMC7951866 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0246297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background This study was conducted to retrospectively assess the relationships between: rhabdomyolysis (quantified by creatine kinase (CK) activity) and kidney injury (quantified by serum creatinine concentration), sex, age, body temperature on admission, presence of seizures, and agitation or aggression in patients presenting to the Emergency Department with acute recreational drug toxicity. We also investigated the association with the substances ingested. Methods All presentations to the 16 sentinel Euro-DEN centres in 10 European countries with acute recreational drug toxicity during the first year of the Euro-DEN study (October 2013 to September 2014) were considered. Cases that had abnormal CK activity recorded as part of routine clinical care were divided into 3 cohorts depending on peak CK activity. Cases with normal CK activity were included as a control group (4th cohort). Results Only 1,015 (18.4%) of the 5,529 Euro-DEN presentations had CK activity concentration recorded. Of this group 353 (34.8%) had also creatinine concentration measured. There were 375 (36.9%) with minor rhabdomyolysis, 69 (6.8%) with moderate rhabdomyolysis, and 24 (2.4%) with severe rhabdomyolysis; 547 (53.9%) were included in the control group. There was a positive correlation between CK activity and creatinine concentration (correlation coefficient r = 0.71, p<0.0001). There was no correlation between CK activity and body temperature at the time of presentation to the ED (correlation coefficient r = 0.07, p = 0.03). There was a positive correlation between CK activity and length of stay in the hospital (r = 0.31, p<0.001). There was no association between CK activity and the presence of seizures (p = 0.33) or agitation/aggression (p = 0.45), patients age (p = 0.4) or sex (p = 0.25). The 5 most common agents amongst patients presenting with rhabdomyolysis were: cocaine (n = 107; 22.9% presentations), amphetamine (76; 16.2%), cannabis (74; 15.8%), GHB/GBL (72; 15.4%) and heroin (67; 14.3%). The distribution of rhabdomyolysis in 5 most common drugs was (drug; patients with rhabdomyolysis, patients without rhabdomyolysis): cocaine (107, 122), cannabis (74, 117), GHB/GBL (72, 81), amphetamine (76, 66), heroin (67, 70). Conclusions Abnormal values of CK activity occurred in almost half (46.1%) of presentations to the Emergency Department with acute recreational drug toxicity in whom CK activity was measured; however, severe rhabdomyolysis is seen in only a small minority (2.4%). Those with rhabdomyolysis are at significantly higher risk of kidney injury and have a longer length of hospital stay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wojciech Waldman
- Department of Clinical Toxicology, Medical University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland.,Pomeranian Centre of Toxicology, Gdansk, Poland
| | | | - Alison M Dines
- Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, United Kingdom
| | - David M Wood
- Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, United Kingdom.,Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | - Isabelle Giraudon
- European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | - Paul I Dargan
- Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, United Kingdom.,Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jacek Sein Anand
- Department of Clinical Toxicology, Medical University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland.,Pomeranian Centre of Toxicology, Gdansk, Poland
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Pinterova‐Leca N, Horsley RR, Danda H, Žídková M, Lhotková E, Šíchová K, Štefková K, Balíková M, Kuchař M, Páleníček T. Naphyrone (naphthylpyrovalerone): Pharmacokinetics, behavioural effects and thermoregulation in Wistar rats. Addict Biol 2021; 26:e12906. [PMID: 32378298 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Naphthylpyrovalerone (naphyrone) is a pyrovalerone cathinone that potently inhibits monoamine transporters and provides stimulatory-entactogenic effects. Little is known about the safety of naphyrone or its effects in vivo, and more research is needed to acquire knowledge about its fundamental effects on physiology and behaviour. Our objective was to investigate naphyrone's pharmacokinetics, acute toxicity, hyperthermic potential and stimulatory and psychotomimetic properties in vivo in male Wistar rats. Pharmacokinetics after 1 mg/kg subcutaneous (sc.) naphyrone were measured over 6 h in serum, the brain, liver and lungs. Rectal temperature (degree Celsius) was measured over 10 h in group-versus individually housed rats after 20 mg/kg sc. In the behavioural experiments, 5, 10 or 20 mg/kg of naphyrone was administered 15 or 60 min prior to testing. Stimulation was assessed in the open field, and sensorimotor processing in a prepulse inhibition (PPI) task. Peak concentrations of naphyrone in serum and tissue were reached at 30 min, with a long-lasting elevation in the brain/serum ratio, consistent with observations of lasting hyperlocomotion in the open field and modest increases in body temperature. Administration of 20 mg/kg transiently enhanced PPI. Naphyrone crosses the blood-brain barrier rapidly and is eliminated slowly, and its long-lasting effects correspond to its pharmacokinetics. No specific signs of acute toxicity were observed; therefore, clinical care and harm-reduction guidance should be in line with that available for other stimulants and cathinones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikola Pinterova‐Leca
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology National Institute of Mental Health Klecany Czech Republic
- Third Faculty of Medicine Charles University in Prague Prague Czech Republic
| | - Rachel R. Horsley
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology National Institute of Mental Health Klecany Czech Republic
| | - Hynek Danda
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology National Institute of Mental Health Klecany Czech Republic
- Third Faculty of Medicine Charles University in Prague Prague Czech Republic
| | - Monika Žídková
- Institute of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, First Faculty of Medicine Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague Prague Czech Republic
| | - Eva Lhotková
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology National Institute of Mental Health Klecany Czech Republic
| | - Klára Šíchová
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology National Institute of Mental Health Klecany Czech Republic
| | - Kristýna Štefková
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology National Institute of Mental Health Klecany Czech Republic
| | - Marie Balíková
- Institute of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, First Faculty of Medicine Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague Prague Czech Republic
| | - Martin Kuchař
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology National Institute of Mental Health Klecany Czech Republic
- Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Compounds, Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds University of Chemistry and Technology in Prague Prague Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Páleníček
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology National Institute of Mental Health Klecany Czech Republic
- Third Faculty of Medicine Charles University in Prague Prague Czech Republic
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10
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Duart-Castells L, Nadal-Gratacós N, Muralter M, Puster B, Berzosa X, Estrada-Tejedor R, Niello M, Bhat S, Pubill D, Camarasa J, Sitte HH, Escubedo E, López-Arnau R. Role of amino terminal substitutions in the pharmacological, rewarding and psychostimulant profiles of novel synthetic cathinones. Neuropharmacology 2021; 186:108475. [PMID: 33529677 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of new synthetic cathinones continues to be a matter of public health concern. In fact, they are quickly replaced by new structurally related alternatives. The main goal of the present study was to characterize the pharmacological profile, the psychostimulant and rewarding properties of novel cathinones (pentedrone, N-ethyl-pentedrone, α-PVP, N,N-diethyl-pentedrone and α-PpVP) which only differs in their amino terminal substitution. Rat synaptosomes were used for [3H]dopamine uptake experiments. HEK293 transfected cells (hDAT, hSERT, hOCT; human dopamine, serotonin and organic cation transporter) were also used for [3H]monoamine uptake and transporter binding assays. Molecular docking was used to investigate the effect of the amino substitutions on the biological activity. Hyperlocomotion and conditioned place preference paradigm were used in order to study the psychostimulant and rewarding effects in mice. All compounds tested are potent inhibitors of DAT with very low affinity for SERT, hOCT-2 and -3, and their potency for inhibiting DAT increased when the amino-substituent expanded from a methyl to either an ethyl-, a pyrrolidine- or a piperidine-ring. Regarding the in vivo results, all the compounds induced an increase in locomotor activity and possess rewarding properties. Results also showed a significant correlation between predicted binding affinities by molecular docking and affinity constants (Ki) for hDAT as well as the cLogP of their amino-substituent with their hDAT/hSERT ratios. Our study demonstrates the role of the amino-substituent in the pharmacological profile of novel synthetic cathinones as well as their potency inhibiting DA uptake and ability to induce psychostimulant and rewarding effects in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Duart-Castells
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - N Nadal-Gratacós
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Group (GQF), IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - M Muralter
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - B Puster
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - X Berzosa
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Group (GQF), IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - R Estrada-Tejedor
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Group (GQF), IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - M Niello
- Medical University Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Vienna, Austria, A-1090
| | - S Bhat
- Medical University Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Vienna, Austria, A-1090
| | - D Pubill
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - J Camarasa
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - H H Sitte
- Medical University Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Vienna, Austria, A-1090; Center for Addiction Research and Science, Medical University Vienna, Waehringerstrasse 13 A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - E Escubedo
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - R López-Arnau
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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11
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Cocchi V, Gasperini S, Hrelia P, Tirri M, Marti M, Lenzi M. Novel Psychoactive Phenethylamines: Impact on Genetic Material. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21249616. [PMID: 33348640 PMCID: PMC7766159 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21249616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Psychedelic and stimulating phenethylamines belong to the family of new psychoactive substances (NPS). The acute toxicity framework has begun to be investigated, while studies showing genotoxic potential are very limited or not available. Therefore, in order to fill this gap, the aim of the present work was to evaluate the genotoxicity by treating TK6 cells with 2C-H, 2C-I, 2C-B, 25B-NBOMe, and the popular 3,4-Methylenedioxymethylamphetamine (MDMA). On the basis of cytotoxicity and cytostasis results, we selected the concentrations (6.25–35 µM) to be used in genotoxicity analysis. We used the micronucleus (MN) as indicator of genetic damage and analyzed the MNi frequency fold increase by an automated flow cytometric protocol. All substances, except MDMA, resulted genotoxic; therefore, we evaluated reactive oxygen species (ROS) induction as a possible mechanism at the basis of the demonstrated genotoxicity. The obtained results showed a statistically significant increase in ROS levels for all genotoxic phenethylamines confirming this hypothesis. Our results highlight the importance of genotoxicity evaluation for a complete assessment of the risk associated also with NPS exposure. Indeed, the subjects who do not have hazardous behaviors or require hospitalization by using active but still “safe” doses could run into genotoxicity and in the well-known long-term effects associated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Cocchi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy; (V.C.); (S.G.); (M.L.)
| | - Sofia Gasperini
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy; (V.C.); (S.G.); (M.L.)
| | - Patrizia Hrelia
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy; (V.C.); (S.G.); (M.L.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Micaela Tirri
- Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Center, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (M.T.); (M.M.)
| | - Matteo Marti
- Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Center, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (M.T.); (M.M.)
- Collaborative Center for the Italian National Early Warning System, Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Monia Lenzi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy; (V.C.); (S.G.); (M.L.)
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12
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Synthetic cannabinoid CP-55,940 induces apoptosis in a human skeletal muscle model via regulation of CB 1 receptors and L-type Ca 2+ channels. Arch Toxicol 2020; 95:617-630. [PMID: 33174160 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02944-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Rhabdomyolysis has been reported in patients who abuse synthetic cannabinoids. However, no studies have yet assessed whether these cases reflect the direct cytotoxicity of synthetic cannabinoids on skeletal muscle, a possibility that the present study sought to address. Specifically, this study investigated the cytotoxicity of the synthetic cannabinoid CP-55,940, a compound that acts equally on both types of cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2), in a human embryonic rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cell line. Exposure of these cells to CP-55,940 resulted in concentration-dependent decreases in cell viability. These effects were attenuated by pre-incubation with AM251 (30 µM), a selective CB1 receptor antagonist, but not by pre-incubation with AM630 (30 µM), a selective CB2 receptor antagonist. Following treatment with CP-55,940, RD cells exhibited apoptosis, as indicated by the accumulation of annexin-V, activation of caspase-3, and a loss of the mitochondrial membrane potential. Additionally, CP-55,940 treatment of RD cells led to increases in intracellular Ca2+ levels. CP-55,940-induced cell death was significantly attenuated in the absence of extracellular Ca2+, and was partially decreased by pre-incubation with verapamil (5 µM) or diltiazem (5 µM), compounds that block the L-type Ca2+ channel. Our results indicate that the cytotoxicity of CP-55,940 towards RD cells (skeletal muscle cells) is mediated by the CB1 receptor, but not by the CB2 receptor. Our results further suggest that calcium influx through the L-type channel may play an important role in the apoptosis induced by these compounds.
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13
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Flakka: New Dangerous Synthetic Cathinone on the Drug Scene. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21218185. [PMID: 33142953 PMCID: PMC7663692 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21218185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
New psychoactive substances are being used as drugs and appear to be quite popular nowadays. Thanks to their specific properties, these drugs create inimitable experiences for intoxicated people. Synthetic cathinones are the most common compounds in these new drugs. Among them, α-pyrrolidopentadione (α-PVP), or “Flakka” (street name), is one of the most famous cathinone-designed drugs. Similar to other synthetic cathinone drugs, α-PVP can effectively inhibit norepinephrine and dopamine transmitters. The adverse reactions of α-PVP mainly include mania, tachycardia, and hallucinations. An increasing number of people are being admitted to emergency wards due to the consequences of their use. This work mainly summarizes the history, synthesis, pharmacology, toxicology, structure–activity relationship, metabolism, clinical process and health risks, poisoning and death, forensic toxicology, and legal status of α-PVP. We hope this review will help bring more attention to the exploration of this substance in order to raise awareness of its negative impacts on humans.
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14
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Araki T, Ikegaya Y, Koyama R. The effects of microglia‐ and astrocyte‐derived factors on neurogenesis in health and disease. Eur J Neurosci 2020; 54:5880-5901. [PMID: 32920880 PMCID: PMC8451940 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Hippocampal neurogenesis continues throughout life and has been suggested to play an essential role in maintaining spatial cognitive function under physiological conditions. An increasing amount of evidence has indicated that adult neurogenesis is tightly controlled by environmental conditions in the neurogenic niche, which consists of multiple types of cells including microglia and astrocytes. Microglia maintain the environment of neurogenic niche through their phagocytic capacity and interaction with neurons via fractalkine‐CX3CR1 signaling. In addition, microglia release growth factors such as brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)‐α to support the development of adult born neurons. Astrocytes also manipulate neurogenesis by releasing various soluble factors including adenosine triphosphate and lactate. Whereas, under pathological conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, depression, and epilepsy, microglia and astrocytes play a leading role in inflammation and are involved in attenuating the normal process of neurogenesis. The modulation of glial functions on neurogenesis in these brain diseases are attracting attention as a new therapeutic target. This review describes how these glial cells play a role in adult hippocampal neurogenesis in both health and disease, especially focusing glia‐derived factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tasuku Araki
- Laboratory of Chemical Pharmacology Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences The University of Tokyo Tokyo Japan
| | - Yuji Ikegaya
- Laboratory of Chemical Pharmacology Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences The University of Tokyo Tokyo Japan
- Center for Information and Neural Networks Suita City Osaka Japan
| | - Ryuta Koyama
- Laboratory of Chemical Pharmacology Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences The University of Tokyo Tokyo Japan
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15
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Zhou X, Bouitbir J, Liechti ME, Krähenbühl S, Mancuso RV. Para-Halogenation of Amphetamine and Methcathinone Increases the Mitochondrial Toxicity in Undifferentiated and Differentiated SH-SY5Y Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21082841. [PMID: 32325754 PMCID: PMC7215714 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21082841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Halogenation of amphetamines and methcathinones has become a common method to obtain novel psychoactive substances (NPS) also called “legal highs”. The para-halogenated derivatives of amphetamine and methcathinone are available over the internet and have entered the illicit drug market but studies on their potential neurotoxic effects are rare. The primary aim of this study was to explore the neurotoxicity of amphetamine, methcathinone and their para-halogenated derivatives 4-fluoroamphetamine (4-FA), 4-chloroamphetamine (PCA), 4-fluoromethcathinone (4-FMC), and 4-chloromethcathinone (4-CMC) in undifferentiated and differentiated SH-SY5Y cells. We found that 4-FA, PCA, and 4-CMC were cytotoxic (decrease in cellular ATP and plasma membrane damage) for both cell types, whereby differentiated cells were less sensitive. IC50 values for cellular ATP depletion were in the range of 1.4 mM for 4-FA, 0.4 mM for PCA and 1.4 mM for 4-CMC. The rank of cytotoxicity observed for the para-substituents was chloride > fluoride > hydrogen for both amphetamines and cathinones. Each of 4-FA, PCA and 4-CMC decreased the mitochondrial membrane potential in both cell types, and PCA and 4-CMC impaired the function of the electron transport chain of mitochondria in SH-SY5Y cells. 4-FA, PCA, and 4-CMC increased the ROS level and PCA and 4-CMC induced apoptosis by the endogenous pathway. In conclusion, para-halogenation of amphetamine and methcathinone increases their neurotoxic properties due to the impairment of mitochondrial function and induction of apoptosis. Although the cytotoxic concentrations were higher than those needed for pharmacological activity, the current findings may be important regarding the uncontrolled recreational use of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xun Zhou
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jamal Bouitbir
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
- Swiss Centre for Applied Human Toxicology, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Matthias E Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Krähenbühl
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
- Swiss Centre for Applied Human Toxicology, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Riccardo V Mancuso
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
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16
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Zhou X, Bouitbir J, Liechti ME, Krähenbühl S, Mancuso RV. Hyperthermia Increases Neurotoxicity Associated with Novel Methcathinones. Cells 2020; 9:cells9040965. [PMID: 32295288 PMCID: PMC7227000 DOI: 10.3390/cells9040965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Hyperthermia is one of the severe acute adverse effects that can be caused by the ingestion of recreational drugs, such as methcathinones. The effect of hyperthermia on neurotoxicity is currently not known. The primary aim of our study was therefore to investigate the effects of hyperthermia (40.5 °C) on the neurotoxicity of methcathinone (MC), 4-chloromethcathinone (4-CMC), and 4-methylmethcathinone (4-MMC) in SH-SY5Y cells. We found that 4-CMC and 4-MMC were cytotoxic (decrease in cellular ATP and plasma membrane damage) under both hyper- (40.5 °C) and normothermic conditions (37 °C), whereby cells were more sensitive to the toxicants at 40.5 °C. 4-CMC and 4-MMC impaired the function of the mitochondrial electron transport chain and increased mitochondrial formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in SH-SY5Y cells, which were accentuated under hyperthermic conditions. Hyperthermia was associated with a rapid expression of the 70 kilodalton heat shock protein (Hsp70), which partially prevented cell death after 6 h of exposure to the toxicants. After 24 h of exposure, autophagy was stimulated by the toxicants and by hyperthermia but could only partially prevent cell death. In conclusion, hyperthermic conditions increased the neurotoxic properties of methcathinones despite the stimulation of protective mechanisms. These findings may be important for the understanding of the mechanisms and clinical consequences of the neurotoxicity associated with these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xun Zhou
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (X.Z.); (J.B.); (M.E.L.); (R.V.M.)
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jamal Bouitbir
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (X.Z.); (J.B.); (M.E.L.); (R.V.M.)
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
- Swiss Centre for Applied Human Toxicology, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Matthias E. Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (X.Z.); (J.B.); (M.E.L.); (R.V.M.)
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Krähenbühl
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (X.Z.); (J.B.); (M.E.L.); (R.V.M.)
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
- Swiss Centre for Applied Human Toxicology, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +41-61-265-4715
| | - Riccardo V. Mancuso
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (X.Z.); (J.B.); (M.E.L.); (R.V.M.)
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
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17
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Luethi D, Liechti ME. Designer drugs: mechanism of action and adverse effects. Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:1085-1133. [PMID: 32249347 PMCID: PMC7225206 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02693-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Psychoactive substances with chemical structures or pharmacological profiles that are similar to traditional drugs of abuse continue to emerge on the recreational drug market. Internet vendors may at least temporarily sell these so-called designer drugs without adhering to legal statutes or facing legal consequences. Overall, the mechanism of action and adverse effects of designer drugs are similar to traditional drugs of abuse. Stimulants, such as amphetamines and cathinones, primarily interact with monoamine transporters and mostly induce sympathomimetic adverse effects. Agonism at μ-opioid receptors and γ-aminobutyric acid-A (GABAA) or GABAB receptors mediates the pharmacological effects of sedatives, which may induce cardiorespiratory depression. Dissociative designer drugs primarily act as N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists and pose similar health risks as the medically approved dissociative anesthetic ketamine. The cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptor is thought to drive the psychoactive effects of synthetic cannabinoids, which are associated with a less desirable effect profile and more severe adverse effects compared with cannabis. Serotonergic 5-hydroxytryptamine-2A (5-HT2A) receptors mediate alterations of perception and cognition that are induced by serotonergic psychedelics. Because of their novelty, designer drugs may remain undetected by routine drug screening, thus hampering evaluations of adverse effects. Intoxication reports suggest that several designer drugs are used concurrently, posing a high risk for severe adverse effects and even death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dino Luethi
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Strasse 13a, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
- Institute of Applied Physics, Vienna University of Technology, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060, Vienna, Austria.
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Schanzenstrasse 55, 4056, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Matthias E Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Schanzenstrasse 55, 4056, Basel, Switzerland.
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18
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Santos‐Toscano R, Guirguis A, Davidson C. How preclinical studies have influenced novel psychoactive substance legislation in the UK and Europe. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2020; 86:452-481. [DOI: 10.1111/bcp.14224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Santos‐Toscano
- School of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Clinical & Biomedical Sciences University of Central Lancashire UK
| | - Amira Guirguis
- Swansea University Medical School, Institute of Life Sciences 2, Swansea University Swansea UK
| | - Colin Davidson
- School of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Clinical & Biomedical Sciences University of Central Lancashire UK
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