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Wongchitrat P, Chanmee T, Govitrapong P. Molecular Mechanisms Associated with Neurodegeneration of Neurotropic Viral Infection. Mol Neurobiol 2024; 61:2881-2903. [PMID: 37946006 PMCID: PMC11043213 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03761-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
Viral infections of the central nervous system (CNS) cause variable outcomes from acute to severe neurological sequelae with increased morbidity and mortality. Viral neuroinvasion directly or indirectly induces encephalitis via dysregulation of the immune response and contributes to the alteration of neuronal function and the degeneration of neuronal cells. This review provides an overview of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of virus-induced neurodegeneration. Neurotropic viral infections influence many aspects of neuronal dysfunction, including promoting chronic inflammation, inducing cellular oxidative stress, impairing mitophagy, encountering mitochondrial dynamics, enhancing metabolic rewiring, altering neurotransmitter systems, and inducing misfolded and aggregated pathological proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases. These pathogenetic mechanisms create a multidimensional injury of the brain that leads to specific neuronal and brain dysfunction. The understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the neurophathogenesis associated with neurodegeneration of viral infection may emphasize the strategies for prevention, protection, and treatment of virus infection of the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prapimpun Wongchitrat
- Center for Research Innovation and Biomedical Informatics, Faculty of Medical Technology, Mahidol University, 999 Phutthamonthon 4 Road, Salaya, Phutthamonthon, Nakhon Pathom, 73170, Thailand.
| | - Theerawut Chanmee
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Faculty of Medical Technology, Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
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Tripathi S, Sengar S, Shree B, Mohapatra S, Basu A, Sharma V. An RBM10 and NF-κB interacting host lncRNA promotes JEV replication and neuronal cell death. J Virol 2023; 97:e0118323. [PMID: 37991381 PMCID: PMC10734533 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01183-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Central nervous system infection by flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis virus, Dengue virus, and West Nile virus results in neuroinflammation and neuronal damage. However, little is known about the role of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in flavivirus-induced neuroinflammation and neuronal cell death. Here, we characterized the role of a flavivirus-induced lncRNA named JINR1 during the infection of neuronal cells. Depletion of JINR1 during virus infection reduces viral replication and cell death. An increase in GRP78 expression by JINR1 is responsible for promoting virus replication. Flavivirus infection induces the expression of a cellular protein RBM10, which interacts with JINR1. RBM10 and JINR1 promote the proinflammatory transcription factor NF-κB activity, which is detrimental to cell survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shraddha Tripathi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, Telangana, India
| | - Suryansh Sengar
- Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, Telangana, India
| | - Bakhya Shree
- Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, Telangana, India
| | | | - Anirban Basu
- National Brain Research Centre, Manesar, Haryana, India
| | - Vivek Sharma
- Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, Telangana, India
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Blackhurst BM, Funk KE. Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms Underlying Neurologic Manifestations of Mosquito-Borne Flavivirus Infections. Viruses 2023; 15:2200. [PMID: 38005878 PMCID: PMC10674799 DOI: 10.3390/v15112200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Revised: 10/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Flaviviruses are a family of enveloped viruses with a positive-sense RNA genome, transmitted by arthropod vectors. These viruses are known for their broad cellular tropism leading to infection of multiple body systems, which can include the central nervous system. Neurologic effects of flavivirus infection can arise during both acute and post-acute infectious periods; however, the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying post-acute sequelae are not fully understood. Here, we review recent studies that have examined molecular and cellular mechanisms that may contribute to neurologic sequelae following infection with the West Nile virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, Zika virus, dengue virus, and St. Louis encephalitis virus. Neuronal death, either from direct infection or due to the resultant inflammatory response, is a common mechanism by which flavivirus infection can lead to neurologic impairment. Other types of cellular damage, such as oxidative stress and DNA damage, appear to be more specific to certain viruses. This article aims to highlight mechanisms of cellular damage that are common across several flavivirus members and mechanisms that are more unique to specific members. Our goal is to inspire further research to improve understanding of this area in the hope of identifying treatment options for flavivirus-associated neurologic changes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kristen E. Funk
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223, USA
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Kitidee K, Samutpong A, Pakpian N, Wisitponchai T, Govitrapong P, Reiter RJ, Wongchitrat P. Antiviral effect of melatonin on Japanese encephalitis virus infection involves inhibition of neuronal apoptosis and neuroinflammation in SH-SY5Y cells. Sci Rep 2023; 13:6063. [PMID: 37055489 PMCID: PMC10099015 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-33254-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), a mosquito-borne flavivirus, causes high mortality rates in humans and it is the most clinically important and common cause of viral encephalitis in Asia. To date, there is no specific treatment for JEV infection. Melatonin, a neurotropic hormone, is reported to be effective in combating various bacterial and viral infections. However, the effects of melatonin on JEV infection have not yet been studied. The investigation tested the antiviral effects of melatonin against JEV infection and elucidated the possible molecular mechanisms of inhibition. Melatonin inhibited the viral production in JEV-infected SH-SY5Y cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Time-of-addition assays demonstrated a potent inhibitory effect of melatonin at the post-entry stage of viral replication. Molecular docking analysis revealed that melatonin negatively affected viral replication by interfering with physiological function and/or enzymatic activity of both JEV nonstructural 3 (NS3) and NS5 protein, suggesting a possible underlying mechanism of JEV replication inhibition. Moreover, treatment with melatonin reduced neuronal apoptosis and inhibited neuroinflammation induced by JEV infection. The present findings reveal a new property of melatonin as a potential molecule for the further development of anti-JEV agents and treatment of JEV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuntida Kitidee
- Center for Research Innovation and Biomedical Informatics, Faculty of Medical Technology, Mahidol University, 999 Phutthamonthon 4 Road, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom, 73170, Thailand
| | - Arisara Samutpong
- Center for Research Innovation and Biomedical Informatics, Faculty of Medical Technology, Mahidol University, 999 Phutthamonthon 4 Road, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom, 73170, Thailand
| | - Nattaporn Pakpian
- Center for Research Innovation and Biomedical Informatics, Faculty of Medical Technology, Mahidol University, 999 Phutthamonthon 4 Road, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom, 73170, Thailand
| | - Tanchanok Wisitponchai
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Russel J Reiter
- Department of Cell Systems and Anatomy, UT Health San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Prapimpun Wongchitrat
- Center for Research Innovation and Biomedical Informatics, Faculty of Medical Technology, Mahidol University, 999 Phutthamonthon 4 Road, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom, 73170, Thailand.
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Sharma KB, Chhabra S, Kalia M. Japanese Encephalitis Virus-Infected Cells. Subcell Biochem 2023; 106:251-281. [PMID: 38159231 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-40086-5_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
RNA virus infections have been a leading cause of pandemics. Aided by global warming and increased connectivity, their threat is likely to increase over time. The flaviviruses are one such RNA virus family, and its prototypes such as the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), Dengue virus, Zika virus, West Nile virus, etc., pose a significant health burden on several endemic countries. All viruses start off their life cycle with an infected cell, wherein a series of events are set in motion as the virus and host battle for autonomy. With their remarkable capacity to hijack cellular systems and, subvert/escape defence pathways, viruses are able to establish infection and disseminate in the body, causing disease. Using this strategy, JEV replicates and spreads through several cell types such as epithelial cells, fibroblasts, monocytes and macrophages, and ultimately breaches the blood-brain barrier to infect neurons and microglia. The neurotropic nature of JEV, its high burden on the paediatric population, and its lack of any specific antivirals/treatment strategies emphasise the need for biomedical research-driven solutions. Here, we highlight the latest research developments on Japanese encephalitis virus-infected cells and discuss how these can aid in the development of future therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiran Bala Sharma
- Regional Centre for Biotechnology, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Simran Chhabra
- Regional Centre for Biotechnology, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Manjula Kalia
- Regional Centre for Biotechnology, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India.
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Yang S, Wu J, Huang Y, Zhang Y, Shi Y, Yang P, Chen Q. Role of apoptosis in Duck Tembusu virus infection of duckling brains in vivo. Poult Sci 2021; 101:101636. [PMID: 34991036 PMCID: PMC8741609 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2021.101636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 11/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The Duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV) is a novel flavivirus that occurs mainly in poultry. DTMUV infection can cause common neurological symptoms in ducklings, but the pathogenesis of DTMUV has not been elucidated yet. In this study, a DTMUV-infected duckling model was constructed to investigate the apoptosis in the duckling brains. After DTMUV infection, apoptotic cells were observed by transmission electron microscopy. It was found that the abundances of apoptosis-related genes and proteins were not obviously changed in the early stage of infection but significantly changed in the middle and late stages of the disease. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling assay staining results were also consistent with the above phenomena. Interestingly, although apoptosis occurred in the duckling brains infected by DTMUV, some antiapoptotic genes in the brain increased in varying degrees. In conclusion, DTMUV infection could induce apoptosis in ducklings' brains, and the occurrence of apoptosis was accompanied by the virus infection process with certain regularity. This study provides a scientific basis for elucidating the apoptotic mechanism of brain lesions induced by DTMUV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Yang
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, 210095, China
| | - Jingxian Wu
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, 210095, China
| | - Yufei Huang
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, 210095, China
| | - Yafei Zhang
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, 210095, China
| | - Yonghong Shi
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, 210095, China; Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Ping Yang
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, 210095, China
| | - Qiusheng Chen
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, 210095, China.
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Kulprasertsri S, Kobayashi S, Aoshima K, Kobayashi A, Kimura T. Duck Tembusu virus induces stronger cellular responses than Japanese encephalitis virus in primary duck neurons and fibroblasts. Microbiol Immunol 2021; 65:481-491. [PMID: 34260084 DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV) and Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) are mosquito-borne flaviviruses. These two viruses infect ducks; however, they show different neurological outcomes. The mechanism of DTMUV- and JEV-induced neuronal death has not been well investigated. In the present study, we examined the differences in the mechanisms involved in virus-induced cell death and innate immune responses between DTMUV KPS54A61 strain and JEV JaGAr-01 strain using primary duck neurons (DN) and duck fibroblasts (CCL-141). DN and CCL-141 were permissive for the infection and replication of these two viruses, which upregulated the expression of innate immunity genes. Both DTMUV and JEV induced cell death via a caspase-3-dependent manner; however, DTMUV triggered more cell death than JEV did in both CCL-141 and DN. These findings suggest that DTMUV infection causes apoptosis in duck neurons and fibroblasts more strongly than JEV. Levels of the mRNA expression of innate immunity-related genes after DTMUV infection were generally higher than levels after JEV infection, suggesting that DTMUV-induced immune response in duck cells may exhibit toxic effect rather than protective effects. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sittinee Kulprasertsri
- Laboratory of Comparative Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0818, Japan
| | - Shintaro Kobayashi
- Laboratory of Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0818, Japan
| | - Keisuke Aoshima
- Laboratory of Comparative Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0818, Japan
| | - Atsushi Kobayashi
- Laboratory of Comparative Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0818, Japan
| | - Takashi Kimura
- Laboratory of Comparative Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0818, Japan
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Ashraf U, Ding Z, Deng S, Ye J, Cao S, Chen Z. Pathogenicity and virulence of Japanese encephalitis virus: Neuroinflammation and neuronal cell damage. Virulence 2021; 12:968-980. [PMID: 33724154 PMCID: PMC7971234 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2021.1899674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Thousands of human deaths occur annually due to Japanese encephalitis (JE), caused by Japanese encephalitis virus. During the virus infection of the central nervous system, reactive gliosis, uncontrolled inflammatory response, and neuronal cell death are considered as the characteristic features of JE. To date, no specific treatment has been approved to overcome JE, indicating a need for the development of novel therapies. In this article, we focused on basic biological mechanisms in glial (microglia and astrocytes) and neuronal cells that contribute to the onset of neuroinflammation and neuronal cell damage during Japanese encephalitis virus infection. We also provided comprehensive knowledge about anti-JE therapies tested in clinical or pre-clinical settings, and discussed recent therapeutic strategies that could be employed for JE treatment. The improved understanding of JE pathogenesis might lay a foundation for the development of novel therapies to halt JE. Abbreviations AKT: a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase; AP1: activator protein 1; ASC: apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD; ASK1: apoptosis signal-regulated kinase 1; ATF3/4/6: activating transcription factor 3/4/6; ATG5/7: autophagy-related 5/7; BBB: blood-brain barrier; Bcl-3/6: B-cell lymphoma 3/6 protein; CCL: C-C motif chemokine ligand; CCR2: C-C motif chemokine receptor 2; CHOP: C/EBP homologous protein; circRNA: circular RNA; CNS: central nervous system; CXCL: C-X-C motif chemokine ligand; dsRNA: double-stranded RNA; EDEM1: endoplasmic reticulum degradation enhancer mannosidase alpha-like 1; eIF2-ɑ: eukaryotic initiation factor 2 alpha; ER: endoplasmic reticulum; ERK: extracellular signal-regulated kinase; GRP78: 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein; ICAM: intercellular adhesion molecule; IFN: interferon; IL: interleukin; iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase; IRAK1/2: interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 1/2; IRE-1: inositol-requiring enzyme 1; IRF: interferon regulatory factor; ISG15: interferon-stimulated gene 15; JE: Japanese encephalitis; JEV: Japanese encephalitis virus; JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase; LAMP2: lysosome-associated membrane protein type 2; LC3-I/II: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3-I/II; lncRNA: long non-coding RNA; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase; miR/miRNA: microRNA; MK2: mitogen-activated protein kinase-activated protein kinase 2; MKK4: mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 4; MLKL: mixed-linage kinase domain-like protein; MMP: matrix metalloproteinase; MyD88: myeloid differentiation factor 88; Nedd4: neural precursor cell-expressed developmentally downregulated 4; NF-κB: nuclear factor kappa B; NKRF: nuclear factor kappa B repressing factor; NLRP3: NLR family pyrin domain containing 3; NMDAR: N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor; NO: nitric oxide; NS2B/3/4: JEV non-structural protein 2B/3/4; P: phosphorylation. p38: mitogen-activated protein kinase p38; PKA: protein kinase A; PAK4: p21-activated kinase 4; PDFGR: platelet-derived growth factor receptor; PERK: protein kinase R-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase; PI3K: phosphoinositide 3-kinase; PTEN: phosphatase and tensin homolog; Rab7: Ras-related GTPase 7; Raf: proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Raf; Ras: a GTPase; RIDD: regulated IRE-1-dependent decay; RIG-I: retinoic acid-inducible gene I; RIPK1/3: receptor-interacting protein kinase 1/3; RNF11/125: RING finger protein 11/125; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SHIP1: SH2-containing inositol 5ʹ phosphatase 1; SOCS5: suppressor of cytokine signaling 5; Src: proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Src; ssRNA = single-stranded RNA; STAT: signal transducer and activator of transcription; TLR: toll-like receptor; TNFAIP3: tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced protein 3; TNFAR: tumor necrosis factor alpha receptor; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-alpha; TRAF6: tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6; TRIF: TIR-domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon-β; TRIM25: tripartite motif-containing 25; VCAM: vascular cell adhesion molecule; ZO-1: zonula occludens-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Usama Ashraf
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, P. R. China.,The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, P. R. China
| | - Zhen Ding
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Science and Technology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, P. R. China.,Key Laboratory for Animal Health of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, Jiangxi, P. R. China
| | - Shunzhou Deng
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Science and Technology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, P. R. China.,Key Laboratory for Animal Health of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, Jiangxi, P. R. China
| | - Jing Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, P. R. China.,The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, P. R. China
| | - Shengbo Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, P. R. China.,The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, P. R. China
| | - Zheng Chen
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Science and Technology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, P. R. China.,Key Laboratory for Animal Health of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, Jiangxi, P. R. China
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Role of Melatonin on Virus-Induced Neuropathogenesis-A Concomitant Therapeutic Strategy to Understand SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10010047. [PMID: 33401749 PMCID: PMC7823793 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10010047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral infections may cause neurological disorders by directly inducing oxidative stress and interrupting immune system function, both of which contribute to neuronal death. Several reports have described the neurological manifestations in Covid-19 patients where, in severe cases of the infection, brain inflammation and encephalitis are common. Recently, extensive research-based studies have revealed and acknowledged the clinical and preventive roles of melatonin in some viral diseases. Melatonin has been shown to have antiviral properties against several viral infections which are accompanied by neurological symptoms. The beneficial properties of melatonin relate to its properties as a potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunoregulatory molecule and its neuroprotective effects. In this review, what is known about the therapeutic role of melatonin in virus-induced neuropathogenesis is summarized and discussed.
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