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Ansari MM, Bisht N, Singh T, Chauhan PS. Symphony of survival: Insights into cross-talk mechanisms in plants, bacteria, and fungi for strengthening plant immune responses. Microbiol Res 2024; 285:127762. [PMID: 38763015 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2024.127762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 05/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024]
Abstract
Plants coexist with a diverse array of microorganisms, predominantly bacteria and fungi, in both natural and agricultural environments. While some microorganisms positively influence plant development and yield, others can cause harm to the host, leading to significant adverse impacts on the environment and the economy. Plant growth-promoting microorganisms (PGPM), including plant growth-promoting bacteria, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF), and rhizobia, have been found to increase plant biomass production by synthesizing hormones, fixing nitrogen, and solubilizing phosphate and potassium. Numerous studies have contributed to unraveling the complex process of plant-microbe interactions in recent decades. In light of the increasing global challenges such as population growth, climate change, and resource scarcity, it has become imperative to explore the potential of plant-bacteria-fungi crosstalk in promoting sustainability. This review aims to bridge existing knowledge gaps, providing a roadmap for future research in this dynamic field by synthesizing current knowledge and identifying emerging trends.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Mogees Ansari
- CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute (CSIR-NBRI), Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
| | - Nikita Bisht
- CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute (CSIR-NBRI), Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow, India
| | - Tanya Singh
- CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute (CSIR-NBRI), Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
| | - Puneet Singh Chauhan
- CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute (CSIR-NBRI), Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India.
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Wang Z, Li X, Yao X, Ma J, Lu K, An Y, Sun Z, Wang Q, Zhou M, Qin L, Zhang L, Zou S, Chen L, Song C, Dong H, Zhang M, Chen X. MYB44 regulates PTI by promoting the expression of EIN2 and MPK3/6 in Arabidopsis. PLANT COMMUNICATIONS 2023; 4:100628. [PMID: 37221824 PMCID: PMC10721452 DOI: 10.1016/j.xplc.2023.100628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The plant signaling pathway that regulates pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP)-triggered immunity (PTI) involves mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades that comprise sequential activation of several protein kinases and the ensuing phosphorylation of MAPKs, which activate transcription factors (TFs) to promote downstream defense responses. To identify plant TFs that regulate MAPKs, we investigated TF-defective mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana and identified MYB44 as an essential constituent of the PTI pathway. MYB44 confers resistance against the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae by cooperating with MPK3 and MPK6. Under PAMP treatment, MYB44 binds to the promoters of MPK3 and MPK6 to activate their expression, leading to phosphorylation of MPK3 and MPK6 proteins. In turn, phosphorylated MPK3 and MPK6 phosphorylate MYB44 in a functionally redundant manner, thus enabling MYB44 to activate MPK3 and MPK6 expression and further activate downstream defense responses. Activation of defense responses has also been attributed to activation of EIN2 transcription by MYB44, which has previously been shown to affect PAMP recognition and PTI development. AtMYB44 thus functions as an integral component of the PTI pathway by connecting transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation of the MPK3/6 cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuodong Wang
- College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, China
| | - Xiaoxu Li
- College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, China
| | - Xiaohui Yao
- College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, China; Qilu College, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, China
| | - Jinbiao Ma
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Kai Lu
- College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, China
| | - Yuyan An
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China
| | - Zhimao Sun
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China
| | - Qian Wang
- College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, China
| | - Miao Zhou
- College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, China
| | - Lina Qin
- College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, China
| | - Liyuan Zhang
- College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, China
| | - Shenshen Zou
- College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, China
| | - Lei Chen
- College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, China
| | - Congfeng Song
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Hansong Dong
- College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, China; Qilu College, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, China.
| | - Meixiang Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China.
| | - Xiaochen Chen
- College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, China.
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Kudo H, Miyanaga K, Yamamoto N. Immunomodulatory effects of extracellular glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase of exopolysaccharide-producing Lactiplantibacillus plantarum JCM 1149. Food Funct 2023; 14:489-499. [PMID: 36519678 DOI: 10.1039/d2fo02927h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Probiotic lactic acid bacteria evoke immunomodulatory effects in the host; however, the reasons for the different effects of various species and strains remain to be elucidated. To clarify the critical immunomodulatory components and impact of exopolysaccharide (EPS) in Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, 11 types of L. plantarum strains were compared for the production of EPS, inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-6 and -12, and the anti-inflammatory cytokine, interleukin-10, from THP-1 differentiated dendritic cells. EPS in the fermented medium correlated with cytokine-inducing activities. L. plantarum JCM 1149, with the highest production of EPS, also induced interleukin-6, -10, and -12 among the 11 tested strains. Notably, the cytokine-producing activities overlapped with the protein fraction in gel filtration chromatography but not with EPS, which has been reported to exert immunomodulatory effects. The 41 kDa protein that coexisted with EPS was purified as a major active component and identified as glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), a known moonlighting protein. GAPDH secretion was reduced when EPS synthesis inhibitors were added to the culture medium. RNA sequencing of GAPDH-treated THP-1 cells revealed an up-regulation in the expression of genes involved in transcriptional regulation, cell surface receptor signalling, immune response, and matrix components. Here, we report, to our knowledge for the first time, that the cell surface-associated L. plantarum GAPDH plays a crucial role in cytokine production in THP-1 cells, but EPS with less activity may help GAPDH secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiromu Kudo
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Kanagawa 226-8501, Japan.
| | - Kazuhiko Miyanaga
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Kanagawa 226-8501, Japan. .,Deportment of Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, 3311-1, Yakushiji, Shimotsuke-Shi, Tochigi, 329-0498, Japan
| | - Naoyuki Yamamoto
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Kanagawa 226-8501, Japan.
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Madina MH, Santhanam P, Asselin Y, Jaswal R, Bélanger RR. Progress and Challenges in Elucidating the Functional Role of Effectors in the Soybean- Phytophthora sojae Interaction. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 9:12. [PMID: 36675833 PMCID: PMC9866111 DOI: 10.3390/jof9010012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Phytophthora sojae, the agent responsible for stem and root rot, is one of the most damaging plant pathogens of soybean. To establish a compatible-interaction, P. sojae secretes a wide array of effector proteins into the host cell. These effectors have been shown to act either in the apoplastic area or the cytoplasm of the cell to manipulate the host cellular processes in favor of the development of the pathogen. Deciphering effector-plant interactions is important for understanding the role of P. sojae effectors in disease progression and developing approaches to prevent infection. Here, we review the subcellular localization, the host proteins, and the processes associated with P. sojae effectors. We also discuss the emerging topic of effectors in the context of effector-resistance genes interaction, as well as model systems and recent developments in resources and techniques that may provide a better understanding of the soybean-P. sojae interaction.
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Baggs EL, Tiersma MB, Abramson BW, Michael TP, Krasileva KV. Characterization of defense responses against bacterial pathogens in duckweeds lacking EDS1. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2022; 236:1838-1855. [PMID: 36052715 PMCID: PMC9828482 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
ENHANCED DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY 1 (EDS1) mediates the induction of defense responses against pathogens in most angiosperms. However, it has recently been shown that a few species have lost EDS1. It is unknown how defense against disease unfolds and evolves in the absence of EDS1. We utilize duckweeds; a collection of aquatic species that lack EDS1, to investigate this question. We established duckweed-Pseudomonas pathosystems and used growth curves and microscopy to characterize pathogen-induced responses. Through comparative genomics and transcriptomics, we show that the copy number of infection-associated genes and the infection-induced transcriptional responses of duckweeds differ from other model species. Pathogen defense in duckweeds has evolved along different trajectories than in other plants, including genomic and transcriptional reprogramming. Specifically, the miAMP1 domain-containing proteins, which are absent in Arabidopsis, showed pathogen responsive upregulation in duckweeds. Despite such divergence between Arabidopsis and duckweed species, we found conservation of upregulation of certain genes and the role of hormones in response to disease. Our work highlights the importance of expanding the pool of model species to study defense responses that have evolved in the plant kingdom independent of EDS1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin L. Baggs
- Department of Plant and Microbial BiologyUniversity of California BerkeleyBerkeleyCA94720USA
| | - Meije B. Tiersma
- Department of Plant and Microbial BiologyUniversity of California BerkeleyBerkeleyCA94720USA
| | - Brad W. Abramson
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology LaboratoryThe Salk Institute for Biological StudiesLa JollaCA92037USA
| | - Todd P. Michael
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology LaboratoryThe Salk Institute for Biological StudiesLa JollaCA92037USA
| | - Ksenia V. Krasileva
- Department of Plant and Microbial BiologyUniversity of California BerkeleyBerkeleyCA94720USA
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Offor BC, Mhlongo MI, Dubery IA, Piater LA. Plasma Membrane-Associated Proteins Identified in Arabidopsis Wild Type, lbr2-2 and bak1-4 Mutants Treated with LPSs from Pseudomonas syringae and Xanthomonas campestris. MEMBRANES 2022; 12:membranes12060606. [PMID: 35736313 PMCID: PMC9230897 DOI: 10.3390/membranes12060606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Plants recognise bacterial microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) from the environment via plasma membrane (PM)-localised pattern recognition receptor(s) (PRRs). Lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) are known as MAMPs from gram-negative bacteria that are most likely recognised by PRRs and trigger defence responses in plants. The Arabidopsis PRR(s) and/or co-receptor(s) complex for LPS and the associated defence signalling remains elusive. As such, proteomic identification of LPS receptors and/or co-receptor complexes will help to elucidate the molecular mechanisms that underly LPS perception and defence signalling in plants. The Arabidopsis LPS-binding protein (LBP) and bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein (BPI)-related-2 (LBR2) have been shown to recognise LPS and trigger defence responses while brassinosteroid insensitive 1 (BRI1)-associated receptor kinase 1 (BAK1) acts as a co-receptor for several PRRs. In this study, Arabidopsis wild type (WT) and T-DNA knock out mutants (lbr2-2 and bak1-4) were treated with LPS chemotypes from Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 (Pst) and Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris 8004 (Xcc) over a 24 h period. The PM-associated protein fractions were separated by liquid chromatography and analysed by tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) followed by data analysis using ByonicTM software. Using Gene Ontology (GO) for molecular function and biological processes, significant LPS-responsive proteins were grouped according to defence and stress response, perception and signalling, membrane transport and trafficking, metabolic processes and others. Venn diagrams demarcated the MAMP-responsive proteins that were common and distinct to the WT and mutant lines following treatment with the two LPS chemotypes, suggesting contributions from differential LPS sub-structural moieties and involvement of LBR2 and BAK1 in the LPS-induced MAMP-triggered immunity (MTI). Moreover, the identification of RLKs and RLPs that participate in other bacterial and fungal MAMP signalling proposes the involvement of more than one receptor and/or co-receptor for LPS perception as well as signalling in Arabidopsis defence responses.
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Dukare A, Mhatre P, Maheshwari HS, Bagul S, Manjunatha BS, Khade Y, Kamble U. Delineation of mechanistic approaches of rhizosphere microorganisms facilitated plant health and resilience under challenging conditions. 3 Biotech 2022; 12:57. [PMID: 35186654 PMCID: PMC8817020 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-022-03115-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Sustainable agriculture demands the balanced use of inorganic, organic, and microbial biofertilizers for enhanced plant productivity and soil fertility. Plant growth-enhancing rhizospheric bacteria can be an excellent biotechnological tool to augment plant productivity in different agricultural setups. We present an overview of microbial mechanisms which directly or indirectly contribute to plant growth, health, and development under highly variable environmental conditions. The rhizosphere microbiomes promote plant growth, suppress pathogens and nematodes, prime plants immunity, and alleviate abiotic stress. The prospective of beneficial rhizobacteria to facilitate plant growth is of primary importance, particularly under abiotic and biotic stresses. Such microbe can promote plant health, tolerate stress, even remediate soil pollutants, and suppress phytopathogens. Providing extra facts and a superior understanding of microbial traits underlying plant growth promotion can stir the development of microbial-based innovative solutions for the betterment of agriculture. Furthermore, the application of novel scientific approaches for facilitating the design of crop-specific microbial biofertilizers is discussed. In this context, we have highlighted the exercise of "multi-omics" methods for assessing the microbiome's impact on plant growth, health, and overall fitness via analyzing biochemical, physiological, and molecular facets. Furthermore, the role of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) based genome alteration and nanotechnology for improving the agronomic performance and rhizosphere microbiome is also briefed. In a nutshell, the paper summarizes the recent vital molecular processes that underlie the different beneficial plant-microbe interactions imperative for enhancing plant fitness and resilience under-challenged agriculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajinath Dukare
- ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology (CIRCOT), Mumbai, Maharashtra India
| | - Priyank Mhatre
- ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute (Regional Station), Udhagamandalam, Tamil Nadu India
| | - Hemant S. Maheshwari
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Soybean Research (IISR), Indore, Madhya Pradesh India
- Present Address: Ecophysiology of Plants, Faculty of Science and Engineering, GELIFES-Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, The University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Samadhan Bagul
- ICAR-Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Research, Anand, Gujarat India
| | - B. S. Manjunatha
- ICAR-National Institute of Natural Fibre Engineering and Technology, Kolkata, West Bengal India
| | - Yogesh Khade
- ICAR- Directorate of Onion and Garlic Research, Pune, Maharashtra India
| | - Umesh Kamble
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, Haryana India
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Barashkova AS, Sadykova VS, Salo VA, Zavriev SK, Rogozhin EA. Nigellothionins from Black Cumin ( Nigella sativa L.) Seeds Demonstrate Strong Antifungal and Cytotoxic Activity. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:antibiotics10020166. [PMID: 33562041 PMCID: PMC7914917 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10020166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
High-cationic biologically active peptides of the thionins family were isolated from black cumin (Nigella sativa L.) seeds. According to their physicochemical characteristics, they were classified as representatives of the class I thionin subfamily. Novel peptides were called “Nigellothionins”, so-called because of their source plant. Thionins are described as components of plant innate immunity to environmental stress factors. Nine nigellothionins were identified in the plant in different amounts. Complete amino acid sequences were determined for three of them, and a high degree of similarity was detected. Three nigellothionins were examined for antifungal properties against collection strains. The dominant peptide, NsW2, was also examined for activity against clinical isolates of fungi. Cytotoxic activity was determined for NsW2. Nigellothionins activity against all collection strains and clinical isolates varied from absence to a value comparable to amphotericin B, which can be explained by the presence of amino acid substitutions in their sequences. Cytotoxic activity in vitro for NsW2 was detected at sub-micromolar concentrations. This has allowed us to propose an alteration of the molecular mechanism of action at different concentrations. The results obtained suggest that nigellothionins are natural compounds that can be used as antimycotic and anti-proliferative agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna S. Barashkova
- Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, 16/10, ul. Miklukho-Maklaya, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (S.K.Z.); (E.A.R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +7-926-284-93-23
| | - Vera S. Sadykova
- Gause Institute of New Antibiotics, 11 ul. Bol’shaya Pirogovskaya, 119021 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Victoria A. Salo
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biophysics, Sevastopol State University, 33 Universitetskaya Str., 299053 Sevastopol, Russia;
| | - Sergey K. Zavriev
- Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, 16/10, ul. Miklukho-Maklaya, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (S.K.Z.); (E.A.R.)
| | - Eugene A. Rogozhin
- Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, 16/10, ul. Miklukho-Maklaya, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (S.K.Z.); (E.A.R.)
- All-Russian Institute of Plant Protection, Pushkin, 196608 St. Petersburg, Russia
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Oleńska E, Małek W, Wójcik M, Swiecicka I, Thijs S, Vangronsveld J. Beneficial features of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria for improving plant growth and health in challenging conditions: A methodical review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 743:140682. [PMID: 32758827 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Revised: 05/31/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
New eco-friendly approaches are required to improve plant biomass production. Beneficial plant growth-promoting (PGP) bacteria may be exploited as excellent and efficient biotechnological tools to improve plant growth in various - including stressful - environments. We present an overview of bacterial mechanisms which contribute to plant health, growth, and development. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) can interact with plants directly by increasing the availability of essential nutrients (e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus, iron), production and regulation of compounds involved in plant growth (e.g. phytohormones), and stress hormonal status (e.g. ethylene levels by ACC-deaminase). They can also indirectly affect plants by protecting them against diseases via competition with pathogens for highly limited nutrients, biocontrol of pathogens through production of aseptic-activity compounds, synthesis of fungal cell wall lysing enzymes, and induction of systemic responses in host plants. The potential of PGPR to facilitate plant growth is of fundamental importance, especially in case of abiotic stress, where bacteria can support plant fitness, stress tolerance, and/or even assist in remediation of pollutants. Providing additional evidence and better understanding of bacterial traits underlying plant growth-promotion can inspire and stir up the development of innovative solutions exploiting PGPR in times of highly variable environmental and climatological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Oleńska
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of Białystok, Ciołkowskiego 1J, 15-245 Białystok, Poland.
| | - Wanda Małek
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Akademicka 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Małgorzata Wójcik
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Akademicka 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Izabela Swiecicka
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of Białystok, Ciołkowskiego 1J, 15-245 Białystok, Poland.
| | - Sofie Thijs
- Faculty of Sciences, Centre for Environmental Sciences, Hasselt University, Agoralaan D, B-3590, Belgium.
| | - Jaco Vangronsveld
- Faculty of Sciences, Centre for Environmental Sciences, Hasselt University, Agoralaan D, B-3590, Belgium.
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