1
|
Sun F, Lian Y, Zhou M, Luo J, Hu L, Wang J, Sun Z, Yu J. The role of tumor-associated macrophages in the radioresistance of esophageal cancer cells via regulation of the VEGF-mediated angiogenic pathway. Immunol Res 2024; 72:727-740. [PMID: 38772984 DOI: 10.1007/s12026-024-09479-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024]
Abstract
Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are known to promote tumor growth, invasion, metastasis, and protumor angiogenesis, but the role of TAMs in evading radiotherapy in esophagus cancer remains unclear. In this study, we first induced TAMs from human monocytes (THP-1) and identified using immunofluorescence and Western blotting assays. We then co-cultured them with human esophageal cancer cell lines. CCK-8, colony formation, Transwell, scratch test, and TUNEL assays showed that TAMs could promote proliferation, survival rate, invasion, migration, and radioresistance and could inhibit apoptosis of the esophageal squamous carcinoma cell lines KYSE-150 and TE-1 before and after radiotherapy both in vivo and in vitro. Using LV-VEGFA-RNAi lentiviral vectors, we also found that TAMs could increase the expression of VEGFA and that inhibition of VEGFA could inhibit the biological function caused by TAMs. Finally, a Western blotting assay was used to evaluate the expression of various factors underlying the mechanism of TAMs. VEGFA, MAPK, P-MAPK, BCL-2, and Snail proteins were found to be overexpressed in co-cultured groups, whereas after VEGFA inhibition, MAPK, P-MAPK, BCL-2, and Snail proteins were found to be significantly downregulated in the radiotherapy group. These study results offer important information regarding the mechanism of radioresistance in esophageal cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fei Sun
- Department of Radiotherapy, The Affiliated Changzhou Second People's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, No. 29, Xinglong Lane, Tianning District, Changzhou, 213003, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yingying Lian
- Department of Radiotherapy, The Affiliated Changzhou Second People's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, No. 29, Xinglong Lane, Tianning District, Changzhou, 213003, Jiangsu Province, China
- Clinical Medical College of Tianjin Medical University, No.167, Dagang Xueyuan Road, Tianjin, 300270, China
| | - Mengyun Zhou
- Department of Radiotherapy, The Affiliated Changzhou Second People's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, No. 29, Xinglong Lane, Tianning District, Changzhou, 213003, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Judong Luo
- Department of Radiotherapy, The Affiliated Changzhou Second People's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, No. 29, Xinglong Lane, Tianning District, Changzhou, 213003, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Lijun Hu
- Department of Radiotherapy, The Affiliated Changzhou Second People's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, No. 29, Xinglong Lane, Tianning District, Changzhou, 213003, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jianlin Wang
- Department of Radiotherapy, The Affiliated Changzhou Second People's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, No. 29, Xinglong Lane, Tianning District, Changzhou, 213003, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Zhiqiang Sun
- Department of Radiotherapy, The Affiliated Changzhou Second People's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, No. 29, Xinglong Lane, Tianning District, Changzhou, 213003, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jingping Yu
- Changzhou Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital, Changzhou Medical Center, Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou, 213003, Jiangsu Province, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Hachana MR, Maatouk M, Lassouad Z, Sriha B, Mokni M. microRNAs expression profile in phyllodes tumors of the breast. Heliyon 2024; 10:e24803. [PMID: 38312609 PMCID: PMC10835222 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e24803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Proliferation of both stromal and epithelial components is a characteristic of fibroepithelial cancers of the breast. Certain fibroepithelial tumors of the breast, such as fibradenomas and phyllodes tumors, are challenging to distinguish and categorize. To find biomarkers for early diagnosis and improved disease management, it is crucial to deepen our understanding of the molecular pathogenesis pathways and tumor biology of PTs. It has been demonstrated that microRNAs (miRNAs) have significant roles in cancers; the expression pattern of miRNAs can help with cancer categorization and treatment. In contrast, little is understood about miRNAs in breast fibroepithelial cancers. This study was conducted retrospectively with the goal of assessing the expression of six mature miRNAs (hsa-miR-21, hsa-miR-155, hsa-miR-182, hsa-miR-34a, hsa-miR-148a, and hsa-miR-205) in breast fibroepithelial cancers using real-time PCR and predicting these miRNAs' targets using computational techniques. This study comprised 64 patients in total-55 with phyllodes tumors and 9 with fibroadenoma. The research was carried out at the Farhat Hached University Hospital's pathology department in Tunisia. These particular miRNAs expression levels were evaluated via qRT-PCR, and in silico techniques were utilized to predict potential miRNA targets. Analysis of miRNA expression in fibroadenoma and phyllodes tumor tissues revealed that miR-21, miR-155 and miR-182 were upregulated in PTs compared to fibroadenoma and normal tissues. We reported that miR-34a, miR-148a and miR-205 were downregulated in both borderline and malignant PTs compared to fibroadenoma and normal tissue. In silico miRNA target prediction suggested the involvement of these molecules in a wide context of cell signaling pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Ridha Hachana
- Department of Biology, Higher School of Health of Monastir, University of Monastir, Tunisia
- Department of Pathology, CHU Farhat Hached of Sousse, Tunisia
| | - Mouna Maatouk
- Unit of Natural Bioactive Substances and Biotechnology UR12ES12, Faculty of Pharmacy of Monastir, University of Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Zayneb Lassouad
- Department of Pathology, CHU Farhat Hached of Sousse, Tunisia
| | | | - Moncef Mokni
- Department of Pathology, CHU Farhat Hached of Sousse, Tunisia
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Akshaya RL, Saranya I, Selvamurugan N. MicroRNAs mediated interaction of tumor microenvironment cells with breast cancer cells during bone metastasis. Breast Cancer 2023; 30:910-925. [PMID: 37578597 DOI: 10.1007/s12282-023-01491-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
Breast cancer (BC) bone metastasis is primarily osteolytic and has limited therapeutic options. Metastasized BC cells prime the secondary environment in bone by forming a tumor niche, which favors their homing and colonization. The tumor microenvironment (TME) is primarily generated by the cancer cells. Bone TME is an intricate network of multiple cells, including altered bone, tumor, stromal, and immune cells. Recent findings highlight the significance of small non-coding microRNAs (miRNAs) in influencing TME during tumor metastasis. MiRNAs from TME-resident cells facilitate the interaction between the tumor and its microenvironment, thereby regulating the biological processes of tumors. These miRNAs can serve as oncogenes or tumor suppressors. Hence, both miRNA inhibitors and mimics are extensively utilized in pre-clinical trials for modulating the phenotypes of tumor cells and associated stromal cells. This review briefly summarizes the recent developments on the functional role of miRNAs secreted directly or indirectly from the TME-resident cells in facilitating tumor growth, progression, and metastasis. This information would be beneficial in developing novel targeted therapies for BC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R L Akshaya
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Bioengineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, 603 103, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - I Saranya
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Bioengineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, 603 103, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - N Selvamurugan
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Bioengineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, 603 103, Tamil Nadu, India.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Li J, Bao Y, Peng S, Jiang C, Zhu L, Zou S, Xu J, Li Y. M2 Macrophages-Derived Exosomal miRNA-23a-3p Promotes the Progression of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma by Targeting PTEN. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2023; 45:4936-4947. [PMID: 37367063 DOI: 10.3390/cimb45060314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Exosomes from tumor cells and immune cells regulate the tumor microenvironment through the biomolecules or microRNAs (miRNAs) they carry. This research aims to investigate the role of miRNA in exosomes derived from tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) in the progression of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). RT-qPCR and Western blotting assays were used to determine the expression of genes and proteins in OSCC cells. CCK-8, Scratch assay and invasion-related proteins were utilized to detect the malignant progression of tumor cells. High-throughput sequencing predicted differentially expressed miRNAs in exosomes secreted by M0 and M2 macrophages. Compared with exosomes from M0 macrophages, exosomes from M2 macrophages led to enhanced proliferation and invasion of OSCC cells and inhibited their apoptosis. High-throughput sequencing results show that miR-23a-3p is differentially expressed in exosomes from M0 and M2 macrophages. MiRNA target gene database predicts that phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) are target genes of miR-23a-3p. Further studies revealed that transfection of miR-23a-3p mimics inhibited PTEN expression in vivo and in vitro and promoted the malignant progression of OSCC cells, which was reversed by miR-23a-3p inhibitors. MiR-23a-3p in exosomes derived from M2 macrophages promotes malignant progression of OSCC. PTEN is a potential intracellular target of miR-23a-3p. MiR-23a-3p, an M2 macrophage-associated exosome, is a promising target for the future treatment of OSCC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jun Li
- College of Stomatology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 401147, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory for Oral Diseases and Biomedical Sciences, Chongqing 401147, China
- Chongqing Municipal Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Engineering of Higher Education, Chongqing 401147, China
| | - Yongjie Bao
- College of Stomatology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 401147, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory for Oral Diseases and Biomedical Sciences, Chongqing 401147, China
- Chongqing Municipal Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Engineering of Higher Education, Chongqing 401147, China
| | - Sisi Peng
- College of Stomatology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 401147, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory for Oral Diseases and Biomedical Sciences, Chongqing 401147, China
- Chongqing Municipal Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Engineering of Higher Education, Chongqing 401147, China
| | - Chao Jiang
- College of Stomatology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 401147, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory for Oral Diseases and Biomedical Sciences, Chongqing 401147, China
- Chongqing Municipal Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Engineering of Higher Education, Chongqing 401147, China
| | - Luying Zhu
- College of Stomatology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 401147, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory for Oral Diseases and Biomedical Sciences, Chongqing 401147, China
- Chongqing Municipal Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Engineering of Higher Education, Chongqing 401147, China
| | - Sihai Zou
- College of Stomatology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 401147, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory for Oral Diseases and Biomedical Sciences, Chongqing 401147, China
- Chongqing Municipal Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Engineering of Higher Education, Chongqing 401147, China
| | - Jie Xu
- College of Stomatology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 401147, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory for Oral Diseases and Biomedical Sciences, Chongqing 401147, China
- Chongqing Municipal Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Engineering of Higher Education, Chongqing 401147, China
| | - Yong Li
- College of Stomatology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 401147, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory for Oral Diseases and Biomedical Sciences, Chongqing 401147, China
- Chongqing Municipal Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Engineering of Higher Education, Chongqing 401147, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
MicroRNAs in T Cell-Immunotherapy. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 24:ijms24010250. [PMID: 36613706 PMCID: PMC9820302 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24010250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Revised: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) act as master regulators of gene expression in homeostasis and disease. Despite the rapidly growing body of evidence on the theranostic potential of restoring miRNA levels in pre-clinical models, the translation into clinics remains limited. Here, we review the current knowledge of miRNAs as T-cell targeting immunotherapeutic tools, and we offer an overview of the recent advances in miRNA delivery strategies, clinical trials and future perspectives in RNA interference technologies.
Collapse
|
6
|
Zheng S, Liang Y, Tan Y, Li L, Liu Q, Liu T, Lu X. Small Tweaks, Major Changes: Post-Translational Modifications That Occur within M2 Macrophages in the Tumor Microenvironment. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:5532. [PMID: 36428622 PMCID: PMC9688270 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14225532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The majority of proteins are subjected to post-translational modifications (PTMs), regardless of whether they occur in or after biosynthesis of the protein. Capable of altering the physical and chemical properties and functions of proteins, PTMs are thus crucial. By fostering the proliferation, migration, and invasion of cancer cells with which they communicate in the tumor microenvironment (TME), M2 macrophages have emerged as key cellular players in the TME. Furthermore, growing evidence illustrates that PTMs can occur in M2 macrophages as well, possibly participating in molding the multifaceted characteristics and physiological behaviors in the TME. Hence, there is a need to review the PTMs that have been reported to occur within M2 macrophages. Although there are several reviews available regarding the roles of M2 macrophages, the majority of these reviews overlooked PTMs occurring within M2 macrophages. Considering this, in this review, we provide a review focusing on the advancement of PTMs that have been reported to take place within M2 macrophages, mainly in the TME, to better understand the performance of M2 macrophages in the tumor microenvironment. Incidentally, we also briefly cover the advances in developing inhibitors that target PTMs and the application of artificial intelligence (AI) in the prediction and analysis of PTMs at the end of the review.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shutao Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment of High Incidence Diseases in Central Asia, Clinical Medical Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi 830054, China
| | - Yan Liang
- Department of Pathology, Basic Medicine College, Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi 830017, China
| | - Yiyi Tan
- Department of Pathology, Basic Medicine College, Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi 830017, China
| | - Lu Li
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi 830054, China
| | - Qing Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment of High Incidence Diseases in Central Asia, Clinical Medical Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi 830054, China
| | - Tao Liu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi 830054, China
| | - Xiaomei Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment of High Incidence Diseases in Central Asia, Clinical Medical Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi 830054, China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Amer HT, Stein U, El Tayebi HM. The Monocyte, a Maestro in the Tumor Microenvironment (TME) of Breast Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14215460. [PMID: 36358879 PMCID: PMC9658645 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14215460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Revised: 10/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Breast cancer is one of the most prevalent cancers worldwide, surpassing lung cancer as the leading cause of overall cancer incidence. Available possible treatments nowadays include chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, and HER2-targeted therapy. Chemotherapy is notorious for its severe adverse effects. On the other hand, hormonal and HER2-targeted therapies only cover a narrow range of breast cancer subtypes. Accordingly, it is important to shed light on other therapy options. For this reason, immunotherapy nowadays is one of the most important research topics. It can be accomplished either by enhancing the pro-inflammatory immunity or suppressing the anti-inflammatory immunity. This review article aims to shed light on the importance of monocytes in the TME of breast cancer. The review also aims to highlight the behavior of the monocyte-derived populations, especially the anti-inflammatory populations. Thus, suppressing this anti-inflammatory activity might have a remarkable impact on future immunotherapy research. Abstract Breast cancer (BC) is well-known for being a leading cause of death worldwide. It is classified molecularly into luminal A, luminal B HER2−, luminal B HER2+, HER2+, and triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). These subtypes differ in their prognosis; thus, understanding the tumor microenvironment (TME) makes new treatment strategies possible. The TME contains populations that exhibit anti-tumorigenic actions such as tumor-associated eosinophils. Moreover, it contains pro-tumorigenic populations such as tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs), or monocyte-derived populations. The monocyte-derived populations are tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and MDSCs. Thus, a monocyte can be considered a maestro within the TME. Moreover, the expansion of monocytes in the TME depends on many factors such as the BC stage, the presence of macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), and the presence of some chemoattractants. After expansion, monocytes can differentiate into pro-inflammatory populations such as M1 macrophages or anti-inflammatory populations such as M2 macrophages according to the nature of cytokines present in the TME. Differentiation to TAMs depends on various factors such as the BC subtype, the presence of anti-inflammatory cytokines, and epigenetic factors. Furthermore, TAMs and MDSCs not only have a role in tumor progression but also are key players in metastasis. Thus, understanding the monocytes further can introduce new target therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hoda T. Amer
- Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, German University in Cairo, Cairo 11865, Egypt
| | - Ulrike Stein
- Translational Oncology of Solid Tumors, Experimental and Clinical Research Center, Charité—Universitäsmedizin Berlin and Max-Delbrük-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, 10117 Berlin, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Hend M. El Tayebi
- Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, German University in Cairo, Cairo 11865, Egypt
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Zhou H, Gan M, Jin X, Dai M, Wang Y, Lei Y, Lin Z, Ming J. miR‑382 inhibits breast cancer progression and metastasis by affecting the M2 polarization of tumor‑associated macrophages by targeting PGC‑1α. Int J Oncol 2022; 61:126. [PMID: 36069230 PMCID: PMC9477106 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2022.5416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages are principal immune cells with a high plasticity in the human body that can differentiate under different conditions in the tumor microenvironment to adopt two polarized phenotypes with opposite functions. Therefore, converting macrophages from the immunosuppressive phenotype (M2) to the inflammatory phenotype (M1) is considered a promising therapeutic strategy for cancer. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this conversion process have not yet been completely elucidated. In recent years, microRNAs (miRNAs or miRs) have been shown to play key roles in regulating macrophage polarization through their ability to modulate gene expression. In the present study, it was found that miR‑382 expression was significantly downregulated in tumor‑associated macrophages (TAMs) and M2‑polarized macrophages in breast cancer. In vitro, macrophage polarization toward the M2 phenotype and M2‑type cytokine release were inhibited by transfection with miR‑382‑overexpressing lentivirus. Similarly, the overexpression of miR‑382 inhibited the ability of TAMs to promote the malignant behaviors of breast cancer cells. In addition, peroxisome proliferator‑activated receptor γ coactivator‑1α (PGC‑1α) was identified as the downstream target of miR‑382 and it was found that PGC‑1α affected macrophage polarization by altering the metabolic status. The ectopic expression of PGC‑1α restored the phenotype and cytokine secretion of miR‑382‑overexpressing macrophages. Furthermore, PGC‑1α expression reversed the miR‑382‑induced changes in the metabolic state of TAMs and the effects of TAMs on breast cancer cells. Of note, the in vivo growth and metastasis of 4T1 cells were inhibited by miR‑382‑overexpressing TAMs. Taken together, the results of the present study suggest that miR‑382 may alter the metabolic status of macrophages by targeting PGC‑1α, thereby decreasing the proportion of TAMs with the M2 phenotype, and inhibiting the progression and metastasis of breast cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hua Zhou
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, The Affiliated Shapingba Hospital of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, P.R. China
| | - Mingyu Gan
- Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030607, P.R. China
| | - Xin Jin
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, The Affiliated Fuling Hospital of Chongqing University, Chongqing 408099, P.R. China
| | - Meng Dai
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, P.R. China
| | - Yuanyuan Wang
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, P.R. China
| | - Youyang Lei
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, P.R. China
| | - Zijing Lin
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, P.R. China
| | - Jia Ming
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Zhang Y, Zhang X, Meng Y, Xu X, Zuo D. The role of glycolysis and lactate in the induction of tumor-associated macrophages immunosuppressive phenotype. Int Immunopharmacol 2022; 110:108994. [PMID: 35777265 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2022.108994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Growing evidence highlights that glycolysis and tumor-derived lactate could skew tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) toward an immunosuppressive phenotype. However, the updated research has not been systematically summarized yet. TAMs are educated by the tumor microenvironment (TME) and exert immunosuppressive functions and tumorigenic effects via multiple biological processes. It is well known that lactate generated by aerobic glycolysis is significantly accumulated in TME and promotes tumor progression in solid tumors. Moreover, some recent research demonstrated that glycolysis is activated in TAMs to support M2-like polarization, which is absolutely in contrast with the metabolic profile of M2 macrophages in inflammation. Notably, lactate produced by high levels of glycolysis is not only a metabolic by-product but also an oncometabolite. TAMs could access the biological information delivered by lactate and further enhance protumor functions such as immunosuppression and angiogenesis. Here, we outline the connection between glycolysis and TAM phenotype to elucidate the metabolic characteristics of TAMs. Further, insights into the specific molecular mechanisms of lactate-induced TAM polarization and potential therapeutic targets are summarized. We sought to discuss the reciprocal interaction between tumor cells and TAMs mediated by lactate, which will lay a foundation for the research aiming to elucidate the complex functions of TAMs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yijia Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Xue Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Yuting Meng
- Department of Pharmacology, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Xiaobo Xu
- Department of Pharmacology, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Daiying Zuo
- Department of Pharmacology, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Noncoding RNAs as novel immunotherapeutic tools against cancer. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2022; 129:135-161. [PMID: 35305717 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2021.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Immunotherapy is implemented as an important treatment strategy in various malignancies. In cancer, immunotherapy is employed for successful killing of tumor cells with high specificity and greater efficacy, with minimum side effects. Despite various available strategies, cellular immunotherapy including innate (NK cells, macrophages, dendritic cells) and adaptive (B cells and T cells) immune cells plays a critical role in tumor microenvironment. Since past few years, many drugs targeting immune checkpoint proteins including CTLA-4 and PD-1/PD-L1 have been investigated as immunotherapy approach against cancer but complete effectiveness still remains a question, as diverse mechanisms involved in tumorigenesis may result in the development of cancer cell resistance. Number of evidences have highlighted the significant role of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) in regulating multiple stages of cancer initiation, progression & immunity. ncRNAs comprises 98% human transcriptome and are basically considered as dark genome. Among ncRNAs, miRNAs and lncRNAs have been extensively studied in regulating diverse processes of cancer tumorigenesis. Upregulation of oncogenic and downregulation of tumor suppressive miRNAs/lncRNAs has been reported to facilitate the cancer progression and invasiveness. This chapter summarizes how an interplay between ncRNAs and immune cells in cancer pathogenesis can be therapeutically targeted to improve current treatment regimen. Strategies should be employed to improve the efficacy and reduce off-target effects of ncRNA based immunotherapy. Henceforth, combination of ncRNAs and available immunotherapy can be argued to enhance the efficacy of existing immunotherapeutic approaches against cancer to improve patient's survival.
Collapse
|
11
|
Wang P, Chen W, Zhang Y, Zhong Q, Li Z, Wang Y. MicroRNA-1246 suppresses the metastasis of breast cancer cells by targeting the DYRK1A/PGRN axis to prevent the epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Mol Biol Rep 2022; 49:2711-2721. [PMID: 35059968 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-021-07080-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Breast cancer is one of the most common malignant and highly heterogeneous tumors in women. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), such as miR-1246, play important roles in various types of malignant cancers, including triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). However, the biological role of miR-1246 in TNBC has not yet been fully elucidated. In this study, we studied the role of miR-1246 in the occurrence and development of TNBC and its mechanism of action. METHODS Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8), wound healing, and Transwell assays were performed to observe the effects of miR-1246 on TNBC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion, respectively. The expression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers was detected by western blotting. Dual luciferase reporter assays were performed to determine whether DYRK1A is a novel target of miR-1246. In addition, an immunoprecipitation experiment was performed to verify the binding of DYRK1A to PGRN. Rescue experiments were performed to determine whether DYRK1A is a novel target of miR-1246 and whether miR-1246 suppresses the metastasis of breast cancer cells by targeting the DYRK1A/PGRN axis to prevent the epithelial-mesenchymal transition. RESULTS Our results show that miR‑1246 suppresses the proliferation, migration, and invasion of TNBC cells, DYRK1A is a novel target of miR-1246 and Importin-8 mediated miR-1246 nuclear translocation. MiR‑1246 plays a suppressive role in the regulation of the EMT of TNBC cells by targeting DYRK1A. DYRK1A mediates the metastasis of triple-negative breast cancer via activation of the EMT. We identified PGRN as a novel DYRK1A-interacting protein. Overexpression of PGRN and DYRK1A promoted cell proliferation and migration of TNBC, but this effect was reversed by co-expression of miR-1246 mimics.DYRK1A and PGRN act together to regulate the occurrence and development of breast cancer through miR-1246. CONCLUSION MiR-1246 suppresses the metastasis of breast cancer cells by targeting the DYRK1A/PGRN axis and preventing the epithelial-mesenchymal transition. The MiR-1246/DYRK1A/PGRN axis regulates TNBC progression, suggesting that MiR-1246 could be promising therapeutic targets for the treatment of TNBC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pan Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Taizhou Central Hospital, Taizhou, 318000, Zhejiang, China
| | - Wenju Chen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Taizhou Central Hospital, Taizhou, 318000, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yaqiong Zhang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Taizhou Central Hospital, Taizhou, 318000, Zhejiang, China
| | - Qianyi Zhong
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Taizhou Central Hospital, Taizhou, 318000, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zhaoyun Li
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Taizhou Central Hospital, Taizhou, 318000, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yichao Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Taizhou Central Hospital, Taizhou, 318000, Zhejiang, China.
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Taizhou Central Hospital (Taizhou University Hospital), No. 999 Donghai Road, Jiaojiang District, Taizhou, 318000, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Alwani A, Andreasik A, Szatanek R, Siedlar M, Baj-Krzyworzeka M. The Role of miRNA in Regulating the Fate of Monocytes in Health and Cancer. Biomolecules 2022; 12:100. [PMID: 35053248 PMCID: PMC8773712 DOI: 10.3390/biom12010100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Revised: 12/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Monocytes represent a heterogeneous population of blood cells that provide a link between innate and adaptive immunity. The unique potential of monocytes as both precursors (e.g., of macrophages) and effector cells (as phagocytes or cytotoxic cells) makes them an interesting research and therapeutic target. At the site of a tumor, monocytes/macrophages constitute a major population of infiltrating leukocytes and, depending on the type of tumor, may play a dual role as either a bad or good indicator for cancer recovery. The functional activity of monocytes and macrophages derived from them is tightly regulated at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional level. This review summarizes the current understanding of the role of small regulatory miRNA in monocyte formation, maturation and function in health and cancer development. Additionally, signatures of miRNA-based monocyte subsets and the influence of exogenous miRNA generated in the tumor environment on the function of monocytes are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Monika Baj-Krzyworzeka
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Institute of Paediatrics, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 30-663 Kraków, Poland; (A.A.); (A.A.); (R.S.); (M.S.)
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Ahmad A. Epigenetic regulation of immunosuppressive tumor-associated macrophages through dysregulated microRNAs. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2021; 124:26-33. [PMID: 34556420 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2021.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages are immune cells that play different roles under different physiological conditions. They are present in all tissues where they primarily protect from bacteria and pathogens in addition to assisting in tissue repair. During tumor progression, macrophages can exert contrasting effects based on the M1 vs. M2 polarization. The M2 macrophages support tumor growth through mechanisms that help suppress immune responses and/or circumvent immune-surveillance. A number of such mechanisms such as production of IL-10 and arginase, and expression of PD-L1, V-domain Ig suppressor of T cell activation and B7 family molecule B7-H4 are now believed central to the immunosuppressive effects of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). Emerging data has identified epigenetic regulation of these immunosuppressive mechanisms by small non-coding RNAs, the microRNAs (miRNAs). This review discusses the available literature on the subject, including the exosomes mediated transfer of miRNAs between cancer cells and the macrophages within the tumor microenvironment. A number of miRNAs are now believed to be involved in TAMs' production of IL-10 and expression of PD-L1 while the information on such regulation of other immunosuppressive mechanisms is slowly emerging. A better understanding of epigenetic regulation of macrophages-mediated immunosuppressive effect can help identify novel targets for therapy and aid the design of future studies aimed at sensitizing tumors to immune responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aamir Ahmad
- Interim Translational Research Institute, Academic Health System, Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma cell lines have an immunomodulatory effect on macrophages independent of hypoxia and toll-like receptor 9. BMC Cancer 2021; 21:990. [PMID: 34479492 PMCID: PMC8418007 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-021-08357-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A low tissue oxygen level, < 1% O2, is a typical characteristic inside of solid tumors in head and neck cancer (HNSCC) affecting a wide array of cell populations, such as macrophages. However, the mechanisms of how hypoxia influences macrophages are not yet fully elucidated. Our research aimed to study the effect of soluble mediators produced by hypoxic cancer cells on macrophage polarization. Furthermore, we studied the effect of a hypoxic microenvironment on the expression of tumorigenic toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) and the consecutive macrophage polarization. Methods Conditioned media (CMNOX or CMHOX) from cell lines UT-SCC-8, UT-SCC-74A, FaDu, MDA-MB-231 and HaCat cultured under normoxic (21% O2) and hypoxic (1% O2) conditions were used to polarize human monocyte-derived macrophages. Macrophage polarization was measured by flow cytometry and the production of cytokine mRNA using Taqman qPCR. To study the role of TLR9 in macrophage polarization, the lentiviral CRISPR/Cas9 method was used to establish a stable FaDuTLR9def clone. Results Our results demonstrate that the soluble mediators produced by the cancer cells under normoxia polarize macrophages towards a hybridized M1/M2a/M2c phenotype. Furthermore, the results suggest that hypoxia has a limited role in altering the array of cancer-produced soluble factors affecting macrophage polarization and cytokine production. Our data also indicates that increased expression of TLR9 due to hypoxia in malignant cells does not markedly influence the polarization of macrophages. TLR9 transcriptional response to hypoxia is dissimilar to a HIF1-α-regulated LDH-A. This may indicate a context-dependent expression of TLR9 under hypoxia. Conclusions HNSCC cell lines affect both macrophage activity (polarization) and functionality (cytokines), but with exception to iNOS expression, the effects appear independent of hypoxia and TLR9. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12885-021-08357-8.
Collapse
|
15
|
Longo V, Longo A, Adamo G, Fiannaca A, Picciotto S, La Paglia L, Romancino D, La Rosa M, Urso A, Cibella F, Bongiovanni A, Colombo P. 2,2'4,4'-Tetrabromodiphenyl Ether (PBDE-47) Modulates the Intracellular miRNA Profile, sEV Biogenesis and Their miRNA Cargo Exacerbating the LPS-Induced Pro-Inflammatory Response in THP-1 Macrophages. Front Immunol 2021; 12:664534. [PMID: 34025666 PMCID: PMC8138315 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.664534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The 2,2’4,4’-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (PBDE-47) is one of the most prominent PBDE congeners detected in the environment and in animal and human tissues. Animal model experiments suggested the occurrence of PBDE-induced immunotoxicity leading to different outcomes and recently we demonstrated that this substance can impair macrophage and basophil activities. In this manuscript, we decided to further examine the effects induced by PBDE-47 treatment on innate immune response by looking at the intracellular expression profile of miRNAs as well as the biogenesis, cargo content and activity of human M(LPS) macrophage cell-derived small extracellular vesicles (sEVs). Microarray and in silico analysis demonstrated that PBDE-47 can induce some epigenetic effects in M(LPS) THP-1 cells modulating the expression of a set of intracellular miRNAs involved in biological pathways regulating the expression of estrogen-mediated signaling and immune responses with particular reference to M1/M2 differentiation. In addition to the cell-intrinsic modulation of intracellular miRNAs, we demonstrated that PBDE-47 could also interfere with the biogenesis of sEVs increasing their number and selecting a de novo population of sEVs. Moreover, PBDE-47 induced the overload of specific immune related miRNAs in PBDE-47 derived sEVs. Finally, culture experiments with naïve M(LPS) macrophages demonstrated that purified PBDE-47 derived sEVs can modulate macrophage immune response exacerbating the LPS-induced pro-inflammatory response inducing the overexpression of the IL-6 and the MMP9 genes. Data from this study demonstrated that PBDE-47 can perturb the innate immune response at different levels modulating the intracellular expression of miRNAs but also interfering with the biogenesis, cargo content and functional activity of M(LPS) macrophage cell-derived sEVs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Longo
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council of Italy (IRIB-CNR), Palermo, Italy
| | - Alessandra Longo
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council of Italy (IRIB-CNR), Palermo, Italy
| | - Giorgia Adamo
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council of Italy (IRIB-CNR), Palermo, Italy
| | - Antonino Fiannaca
- High Performance Computing and Networking Institute, National Research Council of Italy (ICAR-CNR), Palermo, Italy
| | - Sabrina Picciotto
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council of Italy (IRIB-CNR), Palermo, Italy
| | - Laura La Paglia
- High Performance Computing and Networking Institute, National Research Council of Italy (ICAR-CNR), Palermo, Italy
| | - Daniele Romancino
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council of Italy (IRIB-CNR), Palermo, Italy
| | - Massimo La Rosa
- High Performance Computing and Networking Institute, National Research Council of Italy (ICAR-CNR), Palermo, Italy
| | - Alfonso Urso
- High Performance Computing and Networking Institute, National Research Council of Italy (ICAR-CNR), Palermo, Italy
| | - Fabio Cibella
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council of Italy (IRIB-CNR), Palermo, Italy
| | - Antonella Bongiovanni
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council of Italy (IRIB-CNR), Palermo, Italy
| | - Paolo Colombo
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council of Italy (IRIB-CNR), Palermo, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Ito A, Kagawa S, Sakamoto S, Kuwada K, Kajioka H, Yoshimoto M, Kikuchi S, Kuroda S, Yoshida R, Tazawa H, Fujiwara T. Extracellular vesicles shed from gastric cancer mediate protumor macrophage differentiation. BMC Cancer 2021; 21:102. [PMID: 33509150 PMCID: PMC7845052 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-021-07816-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Peritoneal dissemination often develops in gastric cancer. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are present in the peritoneal cavity of gastric cancer patients with peritoneal dissemination, facilitating tumor progression. However, the mechanism by which macrophages differentiate into tumor-associated macrophages in the peritoneal cavity is not well understood. In this study, the interplay between gastric cancer-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) and macrophages was investigated. Methods The association between macrophages and EVs in peritoneal ascitic fluid of gastric cancer patients, or from gastric cancer cell lines was examined, and their roles in differentiation of macrophages and potentiation of the malignancy of gastric cancer were further explored. Results Immunofluorescent assays of the ascitic fluid showed that M2 macrophages were predominant along with the cancer cells in the peritoneal cavity. EVs purified from gastric cancer cells, as well as malignant ascitic fluid, differentiated peripheral blood mononuclear cell-derived macrophages into the M2-like phenotype, which was demonstrated by their morphology and expression of CD163/206. The macrophages differentiated by gastric cancer-derived EVs promoted the migration ability of gastric cancer cells, and the EVs carried STAT3 protein. Conclusion EVs derived from gastric cancer play a role by affecting macrophage phenotypes, suggesting that this may be a part of the underlying mechanism that forms the intraperitoneal cancer microenvironment. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12885-021-07816-6.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Atene Ito
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Kagawa
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan. .,Minimally Invasive Therapy Center, Okayama University Hospital, Okayama, Japan.
| | - Shuichi Sakamoto
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Kazuya Kuwada
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Hiroki Kajioka
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Masashi Yoshimoto
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Satoru Kikuchi
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan.,Minimally Invasive Therapy Center, Okayama University Hospital, Okayama, Japan
| | - Shinji Kuroda
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan.,Center for Innovative Clinical Medicine, Okayama University Hospital, Okayama, Japan
| | - Ryuichi Yoshida
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Tazawa
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan.,Center for Innovative Clinical Medicine, Okayama University Hospital, Okayama, Japan
| | - Toshiyoshi Fujiwara
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| |
Collapse
|