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Wang P, Shen Y, Manaenko A, Liu F, Yang W, Xiao Z, Li P, Ran Y, Dang R, He Y, Wu Q, Xie P, Li Q. TMT-based quantitative proteomics reveals the protective mechanism of tenuigenin after experimental intracerebral hemorrhage in mice. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2024; 319:117213. [PMID: 37739103 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2023.117213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2023] [Revised: 09/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Tenuigenin (TNG) is an extract obtained from Polygalae Radix. It possesses anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective properties. However, the potential mechanism of TNG in intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) has not been well studied. AIM OF THE STUDY In the present study, we aimed to identify the prospective mechanism of TNG in treating ICH. MATERIALS AND METHODS A total of 120 mice were divided into five groups: Sham group, ICH + vehicle group, ICH + TNG(8 mg/kg), ICH + TNG(16 mg/kg), and ICH + TNG(32 mg/kg). The modified Garcia test and beam walking test were carried out at 24 h and 72 h after ICH. Brain water content, haematoma volume and hemoglobin content examinations were performed at 72 h after ICH. TMT-based quantitative proteomics combined with bioinformatics analysis methods was used to distinguish differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) to explore potential pharmacological mechanisms. Western blotting was performed to validate representative proteins. RESULTS Our results showed that the optimal dose of TNG was 16 mg/kg, which could markedly improve neurological functions, and reduce cerebral oedema, haematoma volume and hemoglobin levels 72 h after ICH. A total of 404 DEPs (353 up-and 51 downregulated) were identified in the ICH + vehicle vs. sham group, while 342 DEPs (306 up-and 36 downregulated) and 76 DEPs (28 up-and 48 downregulated) were quantified in the TNG vs. sham group and TNG vs. ICH + vehicle group, respectively. In addition, a total of 26 DEPs were selected according to strict criteria. Complement and coagulation cascades were the most significantly enriched pathways, and two proteins (MBL-C and Car1) were further validated as hub molecules. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggested that the therapeutic effects of TNG on ICH were closely associated with the complement system, and that MBL-C and Car1 might be potential targets of TNG for the treatment of ICH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - YiQing Shen
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Anatol Manaenko
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - FangYu Liu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - WenSong Yang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - ZhongSong Xiao
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - PeiZheng Li
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - YuXin Ran
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - RuoZhi Dang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Yong He
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - QingYuan Wu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China; Department of Neurology, Chongqing University Three Gorges Hospital, Chongqing, China
| | - Peng Xie
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.
| | - Qi Li
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment on Brain Functional Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.
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García-Llorca A, Carta F, Supuran CT, Eysteinsson T. Carbonic anhydrase, its inhibitors and vascular function. Front Mol Biosci 2024; 11:1338528. [PMID: 38348465 PMCID: PMC10859760 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2024.1338528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/15/2024] Open
Abstract
It has been known for some time that Carbonic Anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) plays a complex role in vascular function, and in the regulation of vascular tone. Clinically employed CA inhibitors (CAIs) are used primarily to lower intraocular pressure in glaucoma, and also to affect retinal blood flow and oxygen saturation. CAIs have been shown to dilate vessels and increase blood flow in both the cerebral and ocular vasculature. Similar effects of CAIs on vascular function have been observed in the liver, brain and kidney, while vessels in abdominal muscle and the stomach are unaffected. Most of the studies on the vascular effects of CAIs have been focused on the cerebral and ocular vasculatures, and in particular the retinal vasculature, where vasodilation of its vessels, after intravenous infusion of sulfonamide-based CAIs can be easily observed and measured from the fundus of the eye. The mechanism by which CAIs exert their effects on the vasculature is still unclear, but the classic sulfonamide-based inhibitors have been found to directly dilate isolated vessel segments when applied to the extracellular fluid. Modification of the structure of CAI compounds affects their efficacy and potency as vasodilators. CAIs of the coumarin type, which generally are less effective in inhibiting the catalytically dominant isoform hCA II and unable to accept NO, have comparable vasodilatory effects as the primary sulfonamides on pre-contracted retinal arteriolar vessel segments, providing insights into which CA isoforms are involved. Alterations of the lipophilicity of CAI compounds affect their potency as vasodilators, and CAIs that are membrane impermeant do not act as vasodilators of isolated vessel segments. Experiments with CAIs, that shed light on the role of CA in the regulation of vascular tone of vessels, will be discussed in this review. The role of CA in vascular function will be discussed, with specific emphasis on findings with the effects of CA inhibitors (CAI).
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea García-Llorca
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Fabrizio Carta
- NEUROFARBA Department, Section of Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Claudiu T. Supuran
- NEUROFARBA Department, Section of Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Thor Eysteinsson
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
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Du W, Yang J, Lou Y, You J, Wang Q. Relationship between baseline bicarbonate and 30-day mortality in patients with non-traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage. Front Neurol 2024; 14:1310327. [PMID: 38234976 PMCID: PMC10793108 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2023.1310327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Objective This study aimed to explore the relationship between baseline bicarbonate levels and 30-day mortality in individuals with non-traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). Methods Patients with non-traumatic SAH were chosen from the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care (MIMIC)-IV database. The relationship between baseline bicarbonate and 30-day mortality was examined using Cox regression models. Restricted cubic splines were used to test the hypothesis that there was an association between bicarbonate and mortality. With the use of Kaplan-Meier survival curve analysis, we looked deeper into the validity of these correlations. To find subgroups with differences, interaction tests were utilized. Results This retrospective cohort study consisted of 521 participants in total. Bicarbonate had a negative association with death at 30 days (HR = 0.93, 95%CI: 0.88-0.98, p = 0.004). Next, we divided bicarbonate into quartile groups. In comparison to the reference group Q1 (20 mEq/L), groups Q3 (23-25 mEq/L) and Q4 (26 mEq/L) had adjusted HR values of 0.47 (95%CI: 0.27-0.82, p = 0.007) and 0.56 (95%CI: 0.31-0.99, p = 0.047). No definite conclusions can be derived from this study, since there is no obvious curve link between baseline bicarbonate and 30-day mortality. Patients' 30-day mortality increased statistically significantly (p < 0.001, K-M analysis) in patients with low bicarbonate levels. The relationship between bicarbonate and 30-day mortality remained consistent in the stratified analysis, with no observed interactions. Conclusion Finally, 30-day mortality was negatively associated with baseline bicarbonate levels. Patients with non-traumatic SAH are more at risk of mortality if their bicarbonate levels are low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenyuan Du
- Department of Neurology, Shijiazhuang Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
| | - Jingmian Yang
- Department of Neurology, Shijiazhuang Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
| | - Yanfang Lou
- Department of Neurology, Shijiazhuang Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
| | - Jiahua You
- Department of Neurology, Shijiazhuang Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
| | - Qiang Wang
- Department of Cardiology, Shijiazhuang Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
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Small Structural Differences Govern the Carbonic Anhydrase II Inhibition Activity of Cytotoxic Triterpene Acetazolamide Conjugates. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28031009. [PMID: 36770674 PMCID: PMC9919727 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28031009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Acetylated triterpenoids betulin, oleanolic acid, ursolic acid, and glycyrrhetinic acid were converted into their succinyl-spacered acetazolamide conjugates. These conjugates were screened for their inhibitory activity onto carbonic anhydrase II and their cytotoxicity employing several human tumor cell lines and non-malignant fibroblasts. As a result, the best inhibitors were derived from betulin and glycyrrhetinic acid while those derived from ursolic or oleanolic acid were significantly weaker inhibitors but also of diminished cytotoxicity. A betulin-derived conjugate held a Ki = 0.129 μM and an EC50 = 8.5 μM for human A375 melanoma cells.
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Lin H, Zhang Y, Dong S, Cai X, Jiang H, Fan Y, Ying K, Du B, Yu P, Yang W. Targeted Therapy of Ischemic Stroke via Crossing the Blood-Brain Barrier Using Edaravone-Loaded Multiresponsive Microgels. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2022; 5:4165-4178. [PMID: 36083038 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.2c00325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Ischemic stroke, as a prevalent neurological disorder, often results in rapid increases in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inflammatory factors in the focal ischemic area. Though edaravone is an approved treatment, its effect is limited due to its weak ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and short half-life. Other effective pharmacological treatment options are clearly lacking. In this study, PNIVDBrF-3-Eda (also named MG-3-Eda) was prepared using a thermo- and pH dual-responsive PNIVDBrF microgel. These were designed with a positively charged network, as synthesized by simultaneous quaternization cross-linking and surfactant-free emulsion copolymerization, to be loaded with the negatively charged edaravone. We then investigated whether such a targeted delivery of edaravone could provide enhanced neuroprotection. Cytotoxicity assays confirmed that the microgel (<1 mg/mL) exhibited promising cytocompatibility with no remarkable effect on cell viability, cell cycle regulation, or apoptosis levels. In vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated that the microgels could successfully penetrate the blood-brain barrier where efficient BBB crossing was observed after disruption of the BBB due to ischemic injury. This enabled MG-3-Eda to target the cerebral ischemic area and achieve local release of edaravone. Treatment with MG-3-Eda significantly reduced the cerebral infarct area in transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) mice and significantly improved behavioral scores. MG-3-Eda treatment also prevented the reduction in NF200 expression, a neuronal marker protein, and attenuated microglia activation (as detected by Iba1) in the local ischemic area via local antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. A superior neuroprotective effect was noted for MG-3-Eda compared to that for free edaravone. Our results indicate that MG-3-Eda administration represents a clear potential treatment for cerebral ischemia via its targeted delivery of edaravone to ischemic areas where it provides significant local antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongwei Lin
- Department of Neurosurgery of the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Department of Biophysics and Department of Neurology of the Fourth Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Shunni Dong
- MOE Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science & Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310012, China
| | - Xiaobo Cai
- Department of Biophysics and Department of Neurology of the Fourth Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Hui Jiang
- Department of Toxicology and Department of Medical Oncology of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Yang Fan
- Department of Toxicology and Department of Medical Oncology of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Kaiyue Ying
- Department of Biophysics and Department of Neurology of the Fourth Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Binyang Du
- MOE Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science & Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310012, China
| | - Peilin Yu
- Department of Toxicology and Department of Medical Oncology of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Wei Yang
- Department of Biophysics and Department of Neurology of the Fourth Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310000, China
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Aspatwar A, Tolvanen MEE, Barker H, Syrjänen L, Valanne S, Purmonen S, Waheed A, Sly WS, Parkkila S. Carbonic Anhydrases in Metazoan Model Organisms: Molecules, Mechanisms, and Physiology. Physiol Rev 2022; 102:1327-1383. [PMID: 35166161 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00018.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
During the past three decades, mice, zebrafish, fruit flies, and Caenorhabditis elegans have been the primary model organisms used for the study of various biological phenomena. These models have also been adopted and developed to investigate the physiological roles of carbonic anhydrases (CAs) and carbonic anhydrase-related proteins (CARPs). These proteins belong to eight CA families and are identified by Greek letters: α, β, γ, δ, ζ, η, θ, and ι. Studies using model organisms have focused on two CA families, α-CAs and β-CAs, which are expressed in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms with species-specific distribution patterns and unique functions. This review covers the biological roles of CAs and CARPs in light of investigations performed in model organisms. Functional studies demonstrate that CAs are not only linked to the regulation of pH homeostasis, the classical role of CAs but also contribute to a plethora of previously undescribed functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashok Aspatwar
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
| | | | - Harlan Barker
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland.,Fimlab Ltd and TAYS Cancer Centre, Tampere University Hospital, Tampere, Finland
| | - Leo Syrjänen
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland.,Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Tampere University Hospital, Tampere, Finland
| | - Susanna Valanne
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
| | - Sami Purmonen
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
| | - Abdul Waheed
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Edward A. Doisy Research Center, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - William S Sly
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Edward A. Doisy Research Center, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Seppo Parkkila
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland.,Fimlab Ltd and TAYS Cancer Centre, Tampere University Hospital, Tampere, Finland
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Lemon N, Canepa E, Ilies MA, Fossati S. Carbonic Anhydrases as Potential Targets Against Neurovascular Unit Dysfunction in Alzheimer’s Disease and Stroke. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 13:772278. [PMID: 34867298 PMCID: PMC8635164 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.772278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The Neurovascular Unit (NVU) is an important multicellular structure of the central nervous system (CNS), which participates in the regulation of cerebral blood flow (CBF), delivery of oxygen and nutrients, immunological surveillance, clearance, barrier functions, and CNS homeostasis. Stroke and Alzheimer Disease (AD) are two pathologies with extensive NVU dysfunction. The cell types of the NVU change in both structure and function following an ischemic insult and during the development of AD pathology. Stroke and AD share common risk factors such as cardiovascular disease, and also share similarities at a molecular level. In both diseases, disruption of metabolic support, mitochondrial dysfunction, increase in oxidative stress, release of inflammatory signaling molecules, and blood brain barrier disruption result in NVU dysfunction, leading to cell death and neurodegeneration. Improved therapeutic strategies for both AD and stroke are needed. Carbonic anhydrases (CAs) are well-known targets for other diseases and are being recently investigated for their function in the development of cerebrovascular pathology. CAs catalyze the hydration of CO2 to produce bicarbonate and a proton. This reaction is important for pH homeostasis, overturn of cerebrospinal fluid, regulation of CBF, and other physiological functions. Humans express 15 CA isoforms with different distribution patterns. Recent studies provide evidence that CA inhibition is protective to NVU cells in vitro and in vivo, in models of stroke and AD pathology. CA inhibitors are FDA-approved for treatment of glaucoma, high-altitude sickness, and other indications. Most FDA-approved CA inhibitors are pan-CA inhibitors; however, specific CA isoforms are likely to modulate the NVU function. This review will summarize the literature regarding the use of pan-CA and specific CA inhibitors along with genetic manipulation of specific CA isoforms in stroke and AD models, to bring light into the functions of CAs in the NVU. Although pan-CA inhibitors are protective and safe, we hypothesize that targeting specific CA isoforms will increase the efficacy of CA inhibition and reduce side effects. More studies to further determine specific CA isoforms functions and changes in disease states are essential to the development of novel therapies for cerebrovascular pathology, occurring in both stroke and AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Lemon
- Alzheimer’s Center at Temple (ACT), Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Elisa Canepa
- Alzheimer’s Center at Temple (ACT), Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Marc A. Ilies
- Alzheimer’s Center at Temple (ACT), Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Moulder Center for Drug Discovery Research, Temple University School of Pharmacy, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Silvia Fossati
- Alzheimer’s Center at Temple (ACT), Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- *Correspondence: Silvia Fossati,
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Supuran CT. Multitargeting approaches involving carbonic anhydrase inhibitors: hybrid drugs against a variety of disorders. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2021; 36:1702-1714. [PMID: 34325588 PMCID: PMC8330743 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2021.1945049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Carbonic anhydrases (CAs, EC 4.2.1.1) are enzymes involved in a multitude of diseases, and their inhibitors are in clinical use as drugs for the management of glaucoma, epilepsy, obesity, and tumours. In the last decade, multitargeting approaches have been proposed by hybridisation of CA inhibitors (CAIs) of sulphonamide, coumarin, and sulphocoumarin types with NO donors, CO donors, prostaglandin analogs, β-adrenergic blockers, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and a variety of anticancer agents (cytotoxic drugs, kinase/telomerase inhibitors, P-gp and thioredoxin inhibitors). Many of the obtained hybrids showed enhanced efficacy compared to the parent drugs, making multitargeting an effective and innovative approach for various pharmacological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudiu T Supuran
- NEUROFARBA Department, Sezione di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Florence, Italy
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