1
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Glenn IS, Hall LN, Khalid MM, Ott M, Shoichet BK. Colloidal Aggregation Confounds Cell-Based Covid-19 Antiviral Screens. J Med Chem 2024; 67:10263-10274. [PMID: 38864383 PMCID: PMC11236530 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.4c00597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
Colloidal aggregation is one of the largest contributors to false positives in early drug discovery. Here, we consider aggregation's role in cell-based infectivity assays in Covid-19 drug repurposing. We investigated the potential aggregation of 41 drug candidates reported as SARs-CoV-2 entry inhibitors. Of these, 17 formed colloidal particles by dynamic light scattering and exhibited detergent-dependent enzyme inhibition. To evaluate the impact of aggregation on antiviral efficacy in cells, we presaturated the colloidal drug suspensions with BSA or spun them down by centrifugation and measured the effects on spike pseudovirus infectivity. Antiviral potencies diminished by at least 10-fold following both BSA and centrifugation treatments, supporting a colloid-based mechanism. Aggregates induced puncta of the labeled spike protein in fluorescence microscopy, consistent with sequestration of the protein on the colloidal particles. These observations suggest that colloidal aggregation is common among cell-based antiviral drug repurposing and offers rapid counter-screens to detect and eliminate these artifacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella S Glenn
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, California 94143, United States
| | - Lauren N Hall
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, California 94143, United States
| | - Mir M Khalid
- Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Melanie Ott
- Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Brian K Shoichet
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, California 94143, United States
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2
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Li CW, Chao TL, Lai CL, Lin CC, Pan MYC, Cheng CL, Kuo CJ, Wang LHC, Chang SY, Liang PH. Systematic Studies on the Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Mechanisms of Tea Polyphenol-Related Natural Products. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:23984-23997. [PMID: 38854515 PMCID: PMC11154727 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.4c02392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
The causative pathogen of COVID-19, severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), utilizes the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike protein to bind to human receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Further cleavage of spike by human proteases furin, TMPRSS2, and/or cathepsin L facilitates viral entry into the host cells for replication, where the maturation of polyproteins by 3C-like protease (3CLpro) and papain-like protease (PLpro) yields functional nonstructural proteins (NSPs) such as RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) to synthesize mRNA of structural proteins. By testing the tea polyphenol-related natural products through various assays, we found that the active antivirals prevented SARS-CoV-2 entry by blocking the RBD/ACE2 interaction and inhibiting the relevant human proteases, although some also inhibited the viral enzymes essential for replication. Due to their multitargeting properties, these compounds were often misinterpreted for their antiviral mechanisms. In this study, we provide a systematic protocol to check and clarify their anti-SARS-CoV-2 mechanisms, which should be applicable for all of the antivirals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Wei Li
- Institute
of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan
University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Tai-Ling Chao
- Department
of Clinical Laboratory Sciences and Medical Biotechnology, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10048, Taiwan
| | - Chin-Lan Lai
- Institute
of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan
University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Chin Lin
- Institute
of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan
University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Max Yu-Chen Pan
- Institute
of Molecular and Cellular Biology, National
Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
| | - Chieh-Ling Cheng
- Institute
of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan
University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Jung Kuo
- Department
of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing
University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
| | - Lily Hui-Ching Wang
- Institute
of Molecular and Cellular Biology, National
Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
| | - Sui-Yuan Chang
- Department
of Clinical Laboratory Sciences and Medical Biotechnology, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10048, Taiwan
- Department
of Laboratory Medicine, National Taiwan
University Hospital, Taipei 10002, Taiwan
| | - Po-Huang Liang
- Institute
of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
- Institute
of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan
University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
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3
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Tang X, Lei X, Zhang Y. Prediction of Drug-Target Affinity Using Attention Neural Network. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:5126. [PMID: 38791165 PMCID: PMC11121300 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25105126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Studying drug-target interactions (DTIs) is the foundational and crucial phase in drug discovery. Biochemical experiments, while being the most reliable method for determining drug-target affinity (DTA), are time-consuming and costly, making it challenging to meet the current demands for swift and efficient drug development. Consequently, computational DTA prediction methods have emerged as indispensable tools for this research. In this article, we propose a novel deep learning algorithm named GRA-DTA, for DTA prediction. Specifically, we introduce Bidirectional Gated Recurrent Unit (BiGRU) combined with a soft attention mechanism to learn target representations. We employ Graph Sample and Aggregate (GraphSAGE) to learn drug representation, especially to distinguish the different features of drug and target representations and their dimensional contributions. We merge drug and target representations by an attention neural network (ANN) to learn drug-target pair representations, which are fed into fully connected layers to yield predictive DTA. The experimental results showed that GRA-DTA achieved mean squared error of 0.142 and 0.225 and concordance index reached 0.897 and 0.890 on the benchmark datasets KIBA and Davis, respectively, surpassing the most state-of-the-art DTA prediction algorithms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Tang
- School of Computer Science, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710119, China
| | - Xiujuan Lei
- School of Computer Science, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710119, China
| | - Yuchen Zhang
- College of Information Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712199, China;
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4
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Szabó D, Crowe A, Mamotte C, Strappe P. Natural products as a source of Coronavirus entry inhibitors. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 14:1353971. [PMID: 38449827 PMCID: PMC10915212 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1353971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant and lasting impact on the world. Four years on, despite the existence of effective vaccines, the continuous emergence of new SARS-CoV-2 variants remains a challenge for long-term immunity. Additionally, there remain few purpose-built antivirals to protect individuals at risk of severe disease in the event of future coronavirus outbreaks. A promising mechanism of action for novel coronavirus antivirals is the inhibition of viral entry. To facilitate entry, the coronavirus spike glycoprotein interacts with angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) on respiratory epithelial cells. Blocking this interaction and consequently viral replication may be an effective strategy for treating infection, however further research is needed to better characterize candidate molecules with antiviral activity before progressing to animal studies and clinical trials. In general, antiviral drugs are developed from purely synthetic compounds or synthetic derivatives of natural products such as plant secondary metabolites. While the former is often favored due to the higher specificity afforded by rational drug design, natural products offer several unique advantages that make them worthy of further study including diverse bioactivity and the ability to work synergistically with other drugs. Accordingly, there has recently been a renewed interest in natural product-derived antivirals in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. This review provides a summary of recent research into coronavirus entry inhibitors, with a focus on natural compounds derived from plants, honey, and marine sponges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dávid Szabó
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
- Curtin Medical School, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
| | - Andrew Crowe
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
- Curtin Medical School, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
| | - Cyril Mamotte
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
- Curtin Medical School, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
| | - Padraig Strappe
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
- Curtin Medical School, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
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5
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Palla SR, Li CW, Chao TL, Lo HLV, Liu JJ, Pan MYC, Chiu YT, Lin WC, Hu CW, Yang CM, Chen YY, Fang JT, Lin SW, Lin YT, Lin HC, Kuo CJ, Wang LHC, Chang SY, Liang PH. Synthesis, evaluation, and mechanism of 1-(4-(arylethylenylcarbonyl)phenyl)-4-carboxy-2-pyrrolidinones as potent reversible SARS-CoV-2 entry inhibitors. Antiviral Res 2023; 219:105735. [PMID: 37858764 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2023.105735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
A class of 1-(4-(arylethylenylcarbonyl)phenyl)-4-carboxy-2-pyrrolidinones were designed and synthesized via Michael addition, cyclization, aldol condensation, and deprotonation to inhibit the human transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) and Furin, which are involved in priming the SARS-CoV-2 Spike for virus entry. The most potent inhibitor 2f (81) was found to efficiently inhibit the replication of various SARS-CoV-2 delta and omicron variants in VeroE6 and Calu-3 cells, with EC50 range of 0.001-0.026 μM by pre-incubation with the virus to avoid the virus entry. The more potent antiviral activities than the proteases inhibitory activities led to discovery that the synthesized compounds also inhibited Spike's receptor binding domain (RBD):angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) interaction as a main target, and their antiviral activities were enhanced by inhibiting TMPRSS2 and/or Furin. To further confirm the blocking effect of 2f (81) on virus entry, SARS-CoV-2 Spike pseudovirus was used in the entry assay and the results showed that the compound inhibited the pseudovirus entry in a ACE2-dependent pathway, via mainly inhibiting RBD:ACE2 interaction and TMPRSS2 activity in Calu-3 cells. Finally, in the in vivo animal model of SARS-CoV-2 infection, the oral administration of 25 mg/kg 2f (81) in hamsters resulted in reduced bodyweight loss and 5-fold lower viral RNA levels in nasal turbinate three days post-infection. Our findings demonstrated the potential of the lead compound for further preclinical investigation as a potential treatment for SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srinivasa Rao Palla
- Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, 10617, Taiwan; Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Chen-Wei Li
- Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, 10617, Taiwan
| | - Tai-Ling Chao
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences and Medical Biotechnology, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10048, Taiwan
| | - Hoi-Ling Vienn Lo
- Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, 10617, Taiwan
| | - Jia-Jin Liu
- Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, 10617, Taiwan
| | - Max Yu-Chen Pan
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Ting Chiu
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Chin Lin
- Institute of Preventive Medicine, National Defense Medical Center, New Taipei City 23742, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Pathology and Parasitology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei 11490, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Wei Hu
- Institute of Preventive Medicine, National Defense Medical Center, New Taipei City 23742, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Pathology and Parasitology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei 11490, Taiwan; Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
| | - Chuen-Mi Yang
- Institute of Preventive Medicine, National Defense Medical Center, New Taipei City 23742, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ying Chen
- Institute of Preventive Medicine, National Defense Medical Center, New Taipei City 23742, Taiwan; Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
| | - Jun-Tung Fang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences and Medical Biotechnology, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10048, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Wei Lin
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Tzu Lin
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Hsiao-Ching Lin
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan; Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, 10617, Taiwan; Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Jung Kuo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan.
| | - Lily Hui-Ching Wang
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan; School of Medicine, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan.
| | - Sui-Yuan Chang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences and Medical Biotechnology, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10048, Taiwan; Department of Laboratory Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei 10002, Taiwan.
| | - Po-Huang Liang
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan; Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, 10617, Taiwan; Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan.
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6
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Kosenko M, Onkhonova G, Susloparov I, Ryzhikov A. SARS-CoV-2 proteins structural studies using synchrotron radiation. Biophys Rev 2023; 15:1185-1194. [PMID: 37974992 PMCID: PMC10643813 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-023-01153-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023] Open
Abstract
In the process of the development of structural biology, both the size and the complexity of the determined macromolecular structures have grown significantly. As a result, the range of application areas for the results of structural studies of biological macromolecules has expanded. Significant progress in the development of structural biology methods has been largely achieved through the use of synchrotron radiation. Modern sources of synchrotron radiation allow to conduct high-performance structural studies with high temporal and spatial resolution. Thus, modern techniques make it possible to obtain not only static structures, but also to study dynamic processes, which play a key role in understanding biological mechanisms. One of the key directions in the development of structural research is the drug design based on the structures of biomolecules. Synchrotron radiation offers insights into the three-dimensional time-resolved structure of individual viral proteins and their complexes at atomic resolution. The rapid and accurate determination of protein structures is crucial for understanding viral pathogenicity and designing targeted therapeutics. Through the application of experimental techniques, including X-ray crystallography and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), it is possible to elucidate the structural details of SARS-CoV-2 virion containing 4 structural, 16 nonstructural proteins (nsp), and several accessory proteins. The most studied potential targets for vaccines and drugs are the structural spike (S) protein, which is responsible for entering the host cell, as well as nonstructural proteins essential for replication and transcription, such as main protease (Mpro), papain-like protease (PLpro), and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). This article provides a brief overview of structural analysis techniques, with focus on synchrotron radiation-based methods applied to the analysis of SARS-CoV-2 proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maksim Kosenko
- Federal Budgetary Research Institution State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector” Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, 630559 Russia
| | - Galina Onkhonova
- Federal Budgetary Research Institution State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector” Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, 630559 Russia
| | - Ivan Susloparov
- Federal Budgetary Research Institution State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector” Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, 630559 Russia
| | - Alexander Ryzhikov
- Federal Budgetary Research Institution State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector” Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, 630559 Russia
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7
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Lin YJ, Sundhar N, Devi HS, Pien HF, Wen SFM, Sheu JL, Tsai BCK, Huang CY. Development and evaluation of a novel chromium III-based compound for potential inhibition of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants. Heliyon 2023; 9:e20011. [PMID: 37809843 PMCID: PMC10559739 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused 403 million cases of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and resulted in more than 5.7 million deaths worldwide. Extensive research has identified several potential drug treatments for COVID-19. However, the development of new compounds or therapies is necessary to prevent the emergence of drug resistance in SARS-CoV-2. In this study, a novel compound based on hexaacetotetraaquadihydroxochromium(III)diiron(III) nitrate, which contains small amounts of chromium (III), was synthesised and evaluated for its effectiveness against multiple variants of COVID-19 using both in vitro and in vivo models. This innovative compound demonstrated interference with the interaction between the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Furthermore, in vitro experiments showed that this compound downregulated the expression of ACE2 and transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2). It also exhibited a reduction in the activity of 3-chymotrypsin-like protease (3CL) and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). Pretreatment with this small chromium (III)-based compound resulted in reduced ACE2-rich cell infection by various variants of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-pseudotyped lentivirus. Finally, the compound effectively inhibited viral infection by multiple variants of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-pseudotyped lentivirus in both the abdominal and thoracic regions of mice. In conclusion, this compound lowers the likelihood of SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells, inhibits viral maturation and replication in vitro, and reduces infection levels of multiple variants of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-pseudotyped lentivirus in the abdomen and thorax following pretreatment. Small chromium (III)-based compounds have the potential to restrict the progression of SARS-CoV-2 infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Jung Lin
- Cardiovascular and Mitochondrial Related Disease Research Center, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
- School of Post-Baccalaureate Chinese Medicine, College of Medicine, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Navaneethan Sundhar
- Cardiovascular and Mitochondrial Related Disease Research Center, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Hema Sri Devi
- Cardiovascular and Mitochondrial Related Disease Research Center, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
| | | | | | | | - Bruce Chi-Kang Tsai
- Cardiovascular and Mitochondrial Related Disease Research Center, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Yang Huang
- Cardiovascular and Mitochondrial Related Disease Research Center, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
- Center of General Education, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Tzu Chi University of Science and Technology, Hualien, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan
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8
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Verburgh ML, van der Valk M, Rijnders BJ, Reiss P, Wit FW. No association between use of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate, etravirine, or integrase-strand transfer inhibitors and acquisition or severe outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 infection in people with HIV in the Netherlands. AIDS 2023; 37:1481-1486. [PMID: 37395254 PMCID: PMC10328501 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000003577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 04/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
In two Dutch observational cohorts of people with HIV, the use of TDF, ETR, or INSTIs was not independently associated with either the risk of incident SARS-CoV-2 infection or severe COVID-19 outcomes, as was suggested by previous observational and molecular docking studies. Our findings do not support a strategy of modifying antiretroviral therapy to include these agents to protect against SARS-CoV-2 infection and severe COVID-19 outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myrthe L. Verburgh
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam
- Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Infectious Diseases
- Amsterdam Public Health, Global Health
- Amsterdam Institute for Global Health and Development
| | - Marc van der Valk
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam
- Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Infectious Diseases
- HIV Monitoring Foundation, Amsterdam
| | - Bart J.A. Rijnders
- Erasmus Medical Center, Departments of Internal Medicine & Medical Microbiology, Rotterdam
| | - Peter Reiss
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam
- Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Infectious Diseases
- Amsterdam Institute for Global Health and Development
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Global Health, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ferdinand W.N.M. Wit
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam
- Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Infectious Diseases
- HIV Monitoring Foundation, Amsterdam
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9
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Gattinger P, Ohradanova-Repic A, Valenta R. Importance, Applications and Features of Assays Measuring SARS-CoV-2 Neutralizing Antibodies. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065352. [PMID: 36982424 PMCID: PMC10048970 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/05/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023] Open
Abstract
More than three years ago, the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) caused the unforeseen COVID-19 pandemic with millions of deaths. In the meantime, SARS-CoV-2 has become endemic and is now part of the repertoire of viruses causing seasonal severe respiratory infections. Due to several factors, among them the development of SARS-CoV-2 immunity through natural infection, vaccination and the current dominance of seemingly less pathogenic strains belonging to the omicron lineage, the COVID-19 situation has stabilized. However, several challenges remain and the possible new occurrence of highly pathogenic variants remains a threat. Here we review the development, features and importance of assays measuring SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies (NAbs). In particular we focus on in vitro infection assays and molecular interaction assays studying the binding of the receptor binding domain (RBD) with its cognate cellular receptor ACE2. These assays, but not the measurement of SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies per se, can inform us of whether antibodies produced by convalescent or vaccinated subjects may protect against the infection and thus have the potential to predict the risk of becoming newly infected. This information is extremely important given the fact that a considerable number of subjects, in particular vulnerable persons, respond poorly to the vaccination with the production of neutralizing antibodies. Furthermore, these assays allow to determine and evaluate the virus-neutralizing capacity of antibodies induced by vaccines and administration of plasma-, immunoglobulin preparations, monoclonal antibodies, ACE2 variants or synthetic compounds to be used for therapy of COVID-19 and assist in the preclinical evaluation of vaccines. Both types of assays can be relatively quickly adapted to newly emerging virus variants to inform us about the magnitude of cross-neutralization, which may even allow us to estimate the risk of becoming infected by newly appearing virus variants. Given the paramount importance of the infection and interaction assays we discuss their specific features, possible advantages and disadvantages, technical aspects and not yet fully resolved issues, such as cut-off levels predicting the degree of in vivo protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pia Gattinger
- Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Anna Ohradanova-Repic
- Institute for Hygiene and Applied Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Rudolf Valenta
- Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- Karl Landsteiner University, 3500 Krems an der Donau, Austria
- Laboratory for Immunopathology, Department of Clinical Immunology and Allergology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia
- NRC Institute of Immunology FMBA of Russia, 115478 Moscow, Russia
- Correspondence:
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10
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HIV and SARS-CoV-2 Co-Infection: From Population Study Evidence to In Vitro Studies. LIFE (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:life12122089. [PMID: 36556453 PMCID: PMC9781275 DOI: 10.3390/life12122089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have caused two major viral outbreaks during the last century. Two major aspects of HIV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 co-infection have been extensively investigated and deserve attention. First, the impact of the co-infection on the progression of disease caused by HIV-1 or SARS-CoV-2. Second, the impact of the HIV-1 anti-retroviral treatment on SARS-CoV-2 infection. In this review, we aim to summarize and discuss the works produced since the beginning of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic ranging from clinical studies to in vitro experiments in the context of co-infection and drug development.
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11
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Lei S, Chen X, Wu J, Duan X, Men K. Small molecules in the treatment of COVID-19. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2022; 7:387. [PMID: 36464706 PMCID: PMC9719906 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-022-01249-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The outbreak of COVID-19 has become a global crisis, and brought severe disruptions to societies and economies. Until now, effective therapeutics against COVID-19 are in high demand. Along with our improved understanding of the structure, function, and pathogenic process of SARS-CoV-2, many small molecules with potential anti-COVID-19 effects have been developed. So far, several antiviral strategies were explored. Besides directly inhibition of viral proteins such as RdRp and Mpro, interference of host enzymes including ACE2 and proteases, and blocking relevant immunoregulatory pathways represented by JAK/STAT, BTK, NF-κB, and NLRP3 pathways, are regarded feasible in drug development. The development of small molecules to treat COVID-19 has been achieved by several strategies, including computer-aided lead compound design and screening, natural product discovery, drug repurposing, and combination therapy. Several small molecules representative by remdesivir and paxlovid have been proved or authorized emergency use in many countries. And many candidates have entered clinical-trial stage. Nevertheless, due to the epidemiological features and variability issues of SARS-CoV-2, it is necessary to continue exploring novel strategies against COVID-19. This review discusses the current findings in the development of small molecules for COVID-19 treatment. Moreover, their detailed mechanism of action, chemical structures, and preclinical and clinical efficacies are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sibei Lei
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaohua Chen
- grid.54549.390000 0004 0369 4060Department of Pharmacy, Personalized Drug Therapy Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences & Sichuan Provincial People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610072 China
| | - Jieping Wu
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xingmei Duan
- grid.54549.390000 0004 0369 4060Department of Pharmacy, Personalized Drug Therapy Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences & Sichuan Provincial People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610072 China
| | - Ke Men
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 People’s Republic of China
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12
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Chiang CY, Kuo WW, Lin YJ, Kuo CH, Shih CY, Lin PY, Lin SZ, Ho TJ, Huang CY, Shibu MA. Combined effect of traditional Chinese herbal-based formulations Jing Si herbal tea and Jing Si nasal drop inhibits adhesion and transmission of SARS-CoV2 in diabetic SKH-1 mice. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:953438. [PMID: 36425575 PMCID: PMC9681529 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.953438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple studies show increased severity of SARS-CoV2-infection in patients with comorbidities such as hypertension and diabetes. In this study, we have prepared two herbal-based formulations, a pleiotropic herbal drink (Jin Si Herbal Tea, JHT) and a nasal drop (Jin Si nasal drop, JND), to provide preventive care against SARS-CoV2 infection. The effect of JHT and JND was determined in SARS-CoV2-S-pseudotyped lentivirus-infected bronchial and colorectal cell lines and in SKH-1 mouse models. For preliminary studies, ACE2 receptor abundant bronchial (Calu-3) and colorectal cells (Caco-2) were used to determine the effect of JHT and JND on the host entry of various variants of SARS-CoV2-S-pseudotyped lentivirus. A series of experiments were performed to understand the infection rate in SKH-1 mice (6 weeks old, n = 9), find the effective dosage of JHT and JND, and determine the combination effect of JHT and JND on the entry and adhesion of various variant SARS-CoV2-S-pseudotyped lentiviruses, which included highly transmissible delta and gamma mutants. Furthermore, the effect of combined JHT and JND was determined on diabetes-induced SKH-1 mice against the comorbidity-associated intense viral entry and accumulation. In addition, the effect of combined JHT and JND administration on viral transmission from infected SKH-1 mice to uninfected cage mate mice was determined. The results showed that both JHT and JND were effective in alleviating the viral entry and accumulation in the thorax and the abdominal area. While JHT showed a dose-dependent decrease in the viral load, JND showed early inhibition of viral entry from day 1 of the infection. Combined administration of 48.66 mg of JHT and 20 µL of JND showed rapid reduction in the viral entry and reduced the viral load (97-99%) in the infected mice within 3 days of treatment. Moreover, 16.22 mg of JHT and 20 µL JND reduced the viral infection in STZ-induced diabetic SKH-1 mice. Interestingly, combined JHT and JND also inhibited viral transmission among cage mates. The results, therefore, showed that combined administration of JHT and JND is a novel and an efficient strategy to potentially prevent SARS-CoV2 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Yi Chiang
- Cardiovascular and Mitochondrial Related Disease Research Center, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
- Jing Si Herbal Research and Application Center, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Wen Kuo
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, College of Life Sciences, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Ph.D. Program for Biotechnology Industry, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Jung Lin
- Cardiovascular and Mitochondrial Related Disease Research Center, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
- Jing Si Herbal Research and Application Center, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Hua Kuo
- Laboratory of Exercise Biochemistry, University of Taipei, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Yen Shih
- Jing Si Herbal Research and Application Center, Hualien, Taiwan
- Buddhist Tzu Chi Charity Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Pi-Yu Lin
- Jing Si Herbal Research and Application Center, Hualien, Taiwan
- Buddhist Tzu Chi Charity Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Shinn-Zong Lin
- Jing Si Herbal Research and Application Center, Hualien, Taiwan
- Buddhist Tzu Chi Bioinnovation Center, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Tsung-Jung Ho
- Jing Si Herbal Research and Application Center, Hualien, Taiwan
- Department of Chinese Medicine, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
- Integration Center of Traditional Chinese and Modern Medicine, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Hualien, Taiwan
- School of Post-Baccalaureate Chinese Medicine, College of Medicine, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Yang Huang
- Cardiovascular and Mitochondrial Related Disease Research Center, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
- Jing Si Herbal Research and Application Center, Hualien, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Center of General Education, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Tzu Chi University of Science and Technology, Hualien, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Marthandam Asokan Shibu
- Jing Si Herbal Research and Application Center, Hualien, Taiwan
- Department of Biotechnology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, India
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13
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Xu Z, Zou Y, Gao X, Niu MM, Li J, Xue L, Jiang S. Dual-targeting cyclic peptides of receptor-binding domain (RBD) and main protease (Mpro) as potential drug leads for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1041331. [PMID: 36339564 PMCID: PMC9627161 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1041331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The receptor-binding domain (RBD) and the main protease (Mpro) of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) play a crucial role in the entry and replication of viral particles, and co-targeting both of them could be an attractive approach for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection by setting up a "double lock" in the viral lifecycle. However, few dual RBD/Mpro-targeting agents have been reported. Here, four novel RBD/Mpro dual-targeting peptides, termed as MRs 1-4, were discovered by an integrated virtual screening scheme combining molecular docking-based screening and molecular dynamics simulation. All of them possessed nanomolar binding affinities to both RBD and Mpro ranging from 14.4 to 39.2 nM and 22.5-40.4 nM, respectively. Further pseudovirus infection assay revealed that the four selected peptides showed >50% inhibition against SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus at a concentration of 5 µM without significant cytotoxicity to host cells. This study leads to the identification of a class of dual RBD/Mpro-targeting agents, which may be developed as potential and effective SARS-CoV-2 therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Xu
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, The Affiliated Taizhou People’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Taizhou, China
| | - Yunting Zou
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xi Gao
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, The Affiliated Taizhou People’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Taizhou, China
| | - Miao-Miao Niu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jindong Li
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Taizhou People’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Taizhou, China
| | - Lu Xue
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, The Affiliated Taizhou People’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Taizhou, China
| | - Su Jiang
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, The Affiliated Taizhou People’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Taizhou, China
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14
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Barroso da Silva FL, Giron CC, Laaksonen A. Electrostatic Features for the Receptor Binding Domain of SARS-COV-2 Wildtype and Its Variants. Compass to the Severity of the Future Variants with the Charge-Rule. J Phys Chem B 2022; 126:6835-6852. [PMID: 36066414 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.2c04225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Electrostatic intermolecular interactions are important in many aspects of biology. We have studied the main electrostatic features involved in the interaction of the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein with the human receptor Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). As the principal computational tool, we have used the FORTE approach, capable to model proton fluctuations and computing free energies for a very large number of protein-protein systems under different physical-chemical conditions, here focusing on the RBD-ACE2 interactions. Both the wild-type and all critical variants are included in this study. From our large ensemble of extensive simulations, we obtain, as a function of pH, the binding affinities, charges of the proteins, their charge regulation capacities, and their dipole moments. In addition, we have calculated the pKas for all ionizable residues and mapped the electrostatic coupling between them. We are able to present a simple predictor for the RBD-ACE2 binding based on the data obtained for Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron variants, as a linear correlation between the total charge of the RBD and the corresponding binding affinity. This "RBD charge rule" should work as a quick test of the degree of severity of the coming SARS-CoV-2 variants in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando L Barroso da Silva
- Departamento de Ciências Biomoleculares, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. café, s/no-campus da USP, BR-14040-903 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.,Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Carolina Corrêa Giron
- Departamento de Ciências Biomoleculares, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. café, s/no-campus da USP, BR-14040-903 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.,Hospital de Clínicas, Universidade Federal do Triângulo Mineiro, Av. Getúlio Guaritá, 38025-440 Uberaba, MG, Brazil
| | - Aatto Laaksonen
- Department of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Arrhenius Laboratory, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden.,State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 210009, P. R. China.,Centre of Advanced Research in Bionanoconjugates and Biopolymers, Petru Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Aleea Grigore Ghica-Voda, 41A, 700487 Iasi, Romania.,Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Division of Energy Science, Luleå University of Technology, SE-97187 Luleå, Sweden.,Department of Chemical and Geological Sciences, Campus Monserrato, University of Cagliari, SS 554 bivio per Sestu, 09042 Monserrato, Italy
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15
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Ching WY, Adhikari P, Jawad B, Podgornik R. Effect of Delta and Omicron Mutations on the RBD-SD1 Domain of the Spike Protein in SARS-CoV-2 and the Omicron Mutations on RBD-ACE2 Interface Complex. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:10091. [PMID: 36077490 PMCID: PMC9456519 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231710091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The receptor-binding domain (RBD) is the essential part in the Spike-protein (S-protein) of SARS-CoV-2 virus that directly binds to the human ACE2 receptor, making it a key target for many vaccines and therapies. Therefore, any mutations at this domain could affect the efficacy of these treatments as well as the viral-cell entry mechanism. We introduce ab initio DFT-based computational study that mainly focuses on two parts: (1) Mutations effects of both Delta and Omicron variants in the RBD-SD1 domain. (2) Impact of Omicron RBD mutations on the structure and properties of the RBD-ACE2 interface system. The in-depth analysis is based on the novel concept of amino acid-amino acid bond pair units (AABPU) that reveal the differences between the Delta and/or Omicron mutations and its corresponding wild-type strain in terms of the role played by non-local amino acid interactions, their 3D shapes and sizes, as well as contribution to hydrogen bonding and partial charge distributions. Our results also show that the interaction of Omicron RBD with ACE2 significantly increased its bonding between amino acids at the interface providing information on the implications of penetration of S-protein into ACE2, and thus offering a possible explanation for its high infectivity. Our findings enable us to present, in more conspicuous atomic level detail, the effect of specific mutations that may help in predicting and/or mitigating the next variant of concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wai-Yim Ching
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
| | - Puja Adhikari
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
| | - Bahaa Jawad
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
- Department of Applied Sciences, University of Technology, Baghdad 10066, Iraq
| | - Rudolf Podgornik
- School of Physical Sciences and Kavli Institute of Theoretical Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- CAS Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100090, China
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou 325000, China
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16
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Broad-Spectrum Small-Molecule Inhibitors of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike-ACE2 Protein-Protein Interaction from a Chemical Space of Privileged Protein Binders. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15091084. [PMID: 36145305 PMCID: PMC9504289 DOI: 10.3390/ph15091084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapeutically useful small-molecule inhibitors (SMIs) of protein−protein interactions (PPIs) initiating the cell attachment and entry of viruses could provide novel alternative antivirals that act via mechanisms similar to that of neutralizing antibodies but retain the advantages of small-molecule drugs such as oral bioavailability and low likelihood of immunogenicity. From screening our library, which is focused around the chemical space of organic dyes to provide good protein binders, we have identified several promising SMIs of the SARS-CoV-2 spike—ACE2 interaction, which is needed for the attachment and cell entry of this coronavirus behind the COVID-19 pandemic. They included organic dyes, such as Congo red, direct violet 1, and Evans blue, which seem to be promiscuous PPI inhibitors, as well as novel drug-like compounds (e.g., DRI-C23041). Here, we show that in addition to the original SARS-CoV-2 strain, these SMIs also inhibit this PPI for variants of concern including delta (B.1.617.2) and omicron (B.1.1.529) as well as HCoV-NL63 with low- or even sub-micromolar activity. They also concentration-dependently inhibited SARS-CoV-2-S expressing pseudovirus entry into hACE2-expressing cells with low micromolar activity (IC50 < 10 μM) both for the original strain and the delta variant. DRI-C23041 showed good therapeutic (selectivity) index, i.e., separation between activity and cytotoxicity (TI > 100). Specificities and activities require further optimization; nevertheless, these results provide a promising starting point toward novel broad-spectrum small-molecule antivirals that act via blocking the interaction between the spike proteins of coronaviruses and their ACE2 receptor initiating cellular entry.
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