Autoimmune Myocarditis and Arrhythmogenic Mitral Valve Prolapse: An Unexpected Overlap Syndrome

Imaging for the assessment of the arrhythmogenic potential of mitral valve prolapse

Mitral valve prolapse (MVP) is the most common valve disease in the western world and recently emerged as a possible substrate for sudden cardiac death (SCD). It is estimated an annual risk of sudden cardiac death of 0.2 to 1.9% mostly caused by complex ventricular arrhythmias (VA). Several mechanisms have been recognized as potentially responsible for arrhythmia onset in MVP, resulting from the combination of morpho-functional abnormality of the mitral valve, structural substrates (regional myocardial hypertrophy, fibrosis, Purkinje fibers activity, inflammation), and mechanical stretch. Echocardiography plays a central role in MVP diagnosis and assessment of severity of regurgitation. Several abnormalities detectable by echocardiography can be prognostic for the occurrence of VA, from morphological alteration including leaflet redundancy and thickness, mitral annular dilatation, and mitral annulus disjunction (MAD), to motion abnormalities detectable with "Pickelhaube" sign. Additionally, speckle-tracking echocardiography may identify MVP patients at higher risk for VA by detection of increased mechanical dispersion. On the other hand, cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) has the capability to provide a comprehensive risk stratification combining the identification of morphological and motion alteration with the detection of myocardial replacement and interstitial fibrosis, making CMR an ideal method for arrhythmia risk stratification in patients with MVP. Finally, recent studies have suggested a potential role in risk stratification of new techniques such as hybrid PET-MR and late contrast enhancement CT. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the mitral valve prolapse syndrome with a focus on the role of imaging in arrhythmic risk stratification. CLINICAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT: Mitral valve prolapse is the most frequent valve condition potentially associated with arrhythmias. Imaging has a central role in the identification of anatomical, functional, mechanical, and structural alterations potentially associated with a higher risk of developing complex ventricular arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death. KEY POINTS: • Mitral valve prolapse is a common valve disease potentially associated with complex ventricular arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death. • The mechanism of arrhythmogenesis in mitral valve prolapse is complex and multifactorial, due to the interplay among multiple conditions including valve morphological alteration, mechanical stretch, myocardial structure remodeling with fibrosis, and inflammation. • Cardiac imaging, especially echocardiography and cardiac magnetic resonance, is crucial in the identification of several features associated with the potential risk of serious cardiac events. In particular, cardiac magnetic resonance has the advantage of being able to detect myocardial fibrosis which is currently the strongest prognosticator.

Arrhythmic Mitral Valve Prolapse and Sports Activity: Pathophysiology, Risk Stratification, and Sports Eligibility Assessment

Although mitral valve prolapse (MVP) is the most prevalent valvular abnormality in Western countries and generally carries a good prognosis, a small subset of patients is exposed to a significant risk of malignant ventricular arrhythmias (VAs) and sudden cardiac death (SCD), the so-called arrhythmic MVP (AMVP) syndrome. Recent work has emphasized phenotypical risk features of severe AMVP and clarified its pathophysiology. However, the appropriate assessment and risk stratification of patients with suspected AMVP remains a clinical conundrum, with the possibility of both overestimating and underestimating the risk of malignant VAs, with the inappropriate use of advanced imaging and invasive electrophysiology study on one hand, and the catastrophic occurrence of SCD on the other. Furthermore, the sports eligibility assessment of athletes with AMVP remains ill defined, especially in the grey zone of intermediate arrhythmic risk. The definition, epidemiology, pathophysiology, risk stratification, and treatment of AMVP are covered in the present review. Considering recent guidelines and expert consensus statements, we propose a comprehensive pathway to facilitate appropriate counseling concerning the practice of competitive/leisure-time sports, envisioning shared decision making and the multidisciplinary "sports heart team" evaluation of borderline cases. Our final aim is to encourage an active lifestyle without compromising patients' safety.

Arrhythmic Mitral Valve Prolapse: New Menaces of the Known Disease

Mitral  valve prolapse  (MVP) has  long  been  the subject  of intense  discussions regarding the prognosis and  follow-up tactics.  In most  cases,  this condition has a benign prognosis. However, recent autopsy and follow-up studies have shown risks of developing  sudden cardiac death (SCD) in some subgroups of patients who have this clinical phenomenon. The proposed  literature review uses the population  of patients with MVP with the highest probability  of developing  life-threatening ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Patients with the presence of a complex  of changes, including  bicuspid  MVP, negative T waves in the inferior and lateral leads on a standard  12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG), and a special anatomical  phenomenon called mitral annular  disjunction  (MAD), are at high  risk of developing  ventricular  ectopias  and VSS.  A reflection  of the high  risk of SCD  in such patients  is the increase of ventricular ectopy according to Holter monitoring. The presence of a bicuspid  MVP and the MAD  phenomenon, which is a separation  of the line of attachment  of the posterior mitral leaflet from the basal inferior wall segment  towards  the atrial wall, determines the presence of a special form of MVP,  the so-called  arrhythmogenic MVP.  Hence,  in most cases MVP has a benign  prognosis. However, patients with the aforementioned ar- rhythmic  MVP  signs  must  be given  particular  attention  and  annual  follow-up including  ECG  control,  Holter  monitoring and  echocardiographic examination of the heart to reduce the risk of ventricular tachyarrhythmias and SCD development.

Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy: One, None and a Hundred Thousand Diseases

According to the most recent expert consensus statement, arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (AC) is defined as an arrhythmogenic heart muscle disorder, not explained by ischemic, hypertensive, or valvular heart disease, presenting clinically as symptoms or documentation of atrial fibrillation, conduction disease, and/or right ventricular (RV) and/or left ventricular (LV) arrhythmia [...].