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Close J, Spicer SG, Nicklin LL, Uther M, Whalley B, Fullwood C, Parke J, Lloyd J, Lloyd H. Exploring the relationships between psychological variables and loot box engagement, part 1: pre-registered hypotheses. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 10:231045. [PMID: 38126068 PMCID: PMC10731324 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.231045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Loot boxes are purchasable randomized rewards in video games that share structural and psychological similarities with gambling. Systematic review evidence has established reproducible associations between loot box purchasing and both problem gambling and problem video gaming, perhaps driven by a range of overlapping psychological processes (e.g. impulsivity, gambling-related cognitions, etc.) It has also been argued that loot box engagement may have negative influences on player financial and psychological wellbeing. We conducted a pre-registered survey of 1495 loot box purchasing gamers (LB cohort) and 1223 gamers who purchase other, non-randomized game content (nLB cohort). Our survey confirms 15 of our 23 pre-registered hypotheses against our primary outcome (risky loot box engagement), establishing associations with problem gambling, problem gaming, impulsivity, gambling cognitions, experiences of game-related 'flow' and specific 'distraction and compulsion' motivations for purchase. Results with hypotheses concerning potential harms established that risky loot box engagement was negatively correlated with wellbeing and positively correlated with distress. Overall, results indicate that any risks from loot boxes are liable to disproportionately affect various 'at risk' cohorts (e.g. those experiencing problem gambling or video gaming), thereby reiterating calls for policy action on loot boxes.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Close
- Peninsula Medical School, Faculty of Health, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
- School of Psychology, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Stuart Gordon Spicer
- Community and Primary Care Research Group (CPCRG), ITTC Building, Davy Road, Plymouth Science Park, Derriford, Plymouth PL6 8BX, UK
| | - Laura Louise Nicklin
- School of Education, Faculty of Education, Health and Wellbeing, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WS1 3BD, UK
| | - Maria Uther
- Enterprise and Innovation, Faculty of Health, Education and Life Sciences, Birmingham City University, Seacole Building, Edgbaston Campus, Birmingham, UK
| | - Ben Whalley
- School of Psychology, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Chris Fullwood
- School of Natural, Sport and Social Sciences, University of Gloucestershire, Cheltenham, UK
| | | | - Joanne Lloyd
- Cyberpsychology Research Group, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Health and Wellbeing, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK
| | - Helen Lloyd
- School of Psychology, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
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Sirola A, Nyrhinen J, Nuckols J, Wilska TA. Loot box purchasing and indebtedness: The role of psychosocial factors and problem gambling. Addict Behav Rep 2023; 18:100516. [PMID: 37915884 PMCID: PMC10616135 DOI: 10.1016/j.abrep.2023.100516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Loot boxes are increasingly common random-reward monetization mechanisms in digital games. They are popular among gamblers and pose various risks due to their gambling-like nature, but little is known about psychosocial vulnerabilities and financial consequences of purchasing them. This article examined psychosocial associations with self-reported increase in loot box purchasing and indebtedness among past-year gamblers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods Cross-sectional survey data were collected in April 2021 from Finnish, Swedish, and British past-year gamblers aged 18 to 75 (n = 2,022). Measures of loneliness, psychological resilience, and problem gambling were studied in relation to loot box purchasing and indebtedness. Structural equation modeling was used as an analytical technique. Results Loneliness was positively associated with self-reported increase in loot box purchasing. No evidence was found regarding the protective role of psychological resilience in loot box purchasing. Increased loot box purchasing was associated with problem gambling. Problem gambling mediated the relationship between loot box purchasing and indebtedness. Conclusions The findings bring valuable insight into the psychosocial vulnerabilities and financial consequences in loot box purchasing. Loot box purchasing can add to one's financial strain particularly among vulnerable individuals such as problem gamblers, making it crucial to regulate such monetization practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anu Sirola
- The Department of Social Sciences and Philosophy, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Jussi Nyrhinen
- The Department of Social Sciences and Philosophy, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Julia Nuckols
- The Department of Social Sciences and Philosophy, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Terhi-Anna Wilska
- The Department of Social Sciences and Philosophy, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
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Xiao LY, Henderson LL, Newall PWS. What are the odds? Poor compliance with UK loot box probability disclosure industry self-regulation. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0286681. [PMID: 37756294 PMCID: PMC10530011 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0286681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Loot boxes are purchased in video games to obtain randomised rewards of varying value and are thus psychologically akin to gambling. Disclosing the probabilities of obtaining loot box rewards may reduce overspending, in a similar vein to related disclosure approaches in gambling. Presently, this consumer protection measure has been adopted as law only in the People's Republic of China (PRC). In other countries, the videogaming industry has generally adopted this measure as self-regulation. However, self-regulation conflicts with commercial interests and might not maximally promote public welfare. The loot box prevalence rate amongst the 100 highest-grossing UK iPhone games was 77% in mid-2021. The compliance rate with probability disclosure industry self-regulation was only 64.0%, significantly lower than that of PRC legal regulation (95.6%). In addition, UK games generally made insufficiently prominent and difficult-to-access disclosures both in-game and on the game's official website. Significantly fewer UK games disclosed probabilities on their official websites (21.3%) when compared to 72.5% of PRC games. Only one of 75 UK games (1.3%) adopted the most prominent disclosure format of automatically displaying the probabilities on the in-game purchase page. Policymakers should demand more accountable forms of industry self-regulation or impose direct legal regulation to ensure consumer protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leon Y. Xiao
- Center for Digital Play, IT University of Copenhagen, København, Denmark
- Department of Computer Science, University of York, York, United Kingdom
- The Honourable Society of Lincoln’s Inn, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Philip W. S. Newall
- School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
- Experimental Gambling Research Laboratory, School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQUniversity, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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Gibson E, Griffiths MD, Calado F, Harris A. Videogame player experiences with micro-transactions: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2023.107766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
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Close J, Spicer SG, Nicklin LL, Lloyd J, Lloyd H. Loot box engagement: relationships with educational attainment, employment status and earnings in a cohort of 16 000 United Kingdom gamers. Addiction 2022; 117:2338-2345. [PMID: 35129238 PMCID: PMC9543851 DOI: 10.1111/add.15837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Loot boxes are purchasable randomised rewards in video games that share structural and psychological similarities with gambling. Systematic review evidence has established reproducible associations between loot box purchasing and both problem gambling and problem video gaming. We aimed to measure the association between loot box engagement and socioeconomic correlates. DESIGN The study was a cross-sectional online survey using the recruitment platform, Prolific. SETTING United Kingdom (UK). PARTICIPANTS A cohort of 16 196 UK adults (18 + years) self-reporting as video gamers. MEASUREMENTS Respondents were asked about their game-related purchasing behaviour (including loot boxes), recent monthly spend on loot boxes and gambling engagement (gambling in any form; gambling online; playing 'social casino' games). A range of demographic variables were simultaneously captured, including age, sex, ethnicity, earnings, employment and educational attainment. FINDINGS Overall, 17.16% of gamers in our cohort purchased loot boxes, with a mean self-reported monthly spend of £29.12. These loot box purchasers are more likely to gamble (45.97% gamble) than people who make other types of game-related purchases (on aggregate, 28.13% of non-loot box purchasers gamble), and even greater still than those who do not make any game related purchases (24.38% gamble P < 0.001). Loot box engagement (as binary yes/no or as monthly spend normalised to earnings) was significantly associated with younger age (P < 0.001 and P < 0.001; respectively, for binary yes/no and monthly spend, adjusted for false discovery rate correction), male sex (P < 0.001 and P = 0.025), non-university educational attainment (P < 0.001 and P < 0.001) and unemployment (P = 0.003 and P = < 0.001). Lower earners spent a higher proportion of monthly earnings on loot boxes (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS The demographic associations of video game loot box engagement (younger age, male sex, non-university educational attainment and unemployment) mirror those of other addictive and problematic behaviours, including disordered gambling, drug and alcohol misuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Close
- School of PsychologyUniversity of PlymouthPlymouth DevonUK
| | | | - Laura Louise Nicklin
- Department of Education, Faculty of Education, Health & WellbeingUniversity of WolverhamptonWolverhamptonUK
| | - Joanne Lloyd
- Cyberpsychology Research Group, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Health and WellbeingUniversity of WolverhamptonWolverhamptonUK
| | - Helen Lloyd
- Associate Professor in PsychologyPlymouth DevonUK
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Spicer SG, Fullwood C, Close J, Nicklin LL, Lloyd J, Lloyd H. Loot boxes and problem gambling: Investigating the "gateway hypothesis". Addict Behav 2022; 131:107327. [PMID: 35397261 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Loot boxes are purchasable items in video games with a chance-based outcome. They have attracted substantial attention from academics and legislators over recent years, partly because of associations between loot box engagement and problem gambling. Some researchers have suggested that loot boxes may act as a gateway into subsequent gambling and/or problem gambling. However, such "gateway effects" have not been formally investigated. Using a survey of 1102 individuals who both purchase loot boxes and gamble, we found that 19.87% of the sample self-reported either "gateway effects" (loot boxes causally influencing subsequent gambling) or "reverse gateway effects" (gambling causally influencing subsequent loot box engagement). Both subsets of participants had higher scores for problem gambling, problem video gaming, gambling-related cognitions, risky loot boxes engagement, and impulsivity. These individuals also had a tendency for higher loot box and gambling spend; suggesting that potential gateway effects are related to measurable risks and harms. Moreover, the majority of participants reporting gateway effects were under 18 when they first purchased loot boxes. Content analysis of free text responses revealed several reasons for self-reported gateway effects, the most frequent of which were sensation-seeking, normalisation of gambling-like behaviours, and the addictive nature of both activities. Whilst the cross-sectional nature of our findings cannot conclusively establish directions of causality, thus highlighting the need for longitudinal research, we conclude that there is a case for legislation on loot boxes for harm minimisation purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Gordon Spicer
- Community and Primary Care Research Group (CPCRG), University of Plymouth, Plymouth Science Park, Derriford, Plymouth PL6 8BX, UK.
| | - Chris Fullwood
- Cyberpsychology Research Group, School of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Health and Wellbeing, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1, 1LY, UK.
| | - James Close
- School of Psychology, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK.
| | - Laura Louise Nicklin
- School of Education, Faculty of Education, Health and Wellbeing, University of Wolverhampton, Walsall Campus, WS13BD.
| | - Joanne Lloyd
- Cyberpsychology Research Group, School of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Health and Wellbeing, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1, 1LY, UK.
| | - Helen Lloyd
- School of Psychology, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK.
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Puiras E, Oliver C, Cummings S, Sheinin M, Mazmanian D. Motives to engage with or refrain from gambling and loot box content: an exploratory qualitative investigation. J Gambl Stud 2022; 39:779-794. [PMID: 35604522 DOI: 10.1007/s10899-022-10116-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This study examined motives to engage or refrain from engaging with gambling and loot boxes (i.e., in-game "boxes" that can be won within a game or purchased with in-game currency or real money, and which contain a random selection of prizes or objects). University students (n = 321) and community members (n = 279) completed an online questionnaire that included open-ended motives questions. Qualitative inductive content analysis was used to identify a number of overlapping motives to engage with or refrain from gambling and loot box content. Themes associated with motives to gamble included enjoyment, the chance to win, boredom, and charitable intentions. Self-reported reasons to engage with loot boxes included enjoyment, the chance to win, game progression, and passive engagement. In contrast, themes associated with refraining from gambling included negative consequences (e.g., addiction), uncertain outcomes, disinterest, finances, and accessibility. Similarly, reasons to refrain from loot boxes included negative consequences, gambling concerns, disinterest, finances, and accessibility. Overall, these findings, and particularly the overlapping themes between gambling and loot boxes engagement, provide further context and insight into the burgeoning research on loot boxes and assist in delineating their relation to gambling.Motives to engage with or refrain from gambling and loot box content: An exploratory qualitative investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Puiras
- Department of Psychology), Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada
| | - Casey Oliver
- Department of Psychology), Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada
| | - Shayna Cummings
- Department of Psychology), Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada
| | - Micaela Sheinin
- Department of Psychology), Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada
| | - Dwight Mazmanian
- Department of Psychology), Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada.
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Hing N, Rockloff M, Russell AMT, Browne M, Newall P, Greer N, King DL, Thorne H. Loot box purchasing is linked to problem gambling in adolescents when controlling for monetary gambling participation. J Behav Addict 2022; 11. [PMID: 35385397 PMCID: PMC9295209 DOI: 10.1556/2006.2022.00015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and aims Purchasing loot boxes in digital games is akin to gambling as it involves risking money for a chance-based reward of uncertain value. Research has linked buying loot boxes to problem gambling amongst adolescents, but has not examined co-occurring gambling participation. This study examined links between loot box purchasing and problem gambling amongst adolescents while controlling for monetary gambling participation. Methods Two survey samples of Australians aged 12-17 years were recruited through advertisements (n = 843) and online panels (n = 826). They included n = 421 and n = 128 adolescents, respectively, who met criteria for problem gambling. Results Past-month loot box purchasing was significantly related to gambling problems in bivariate analyses. When including age, gender and past-month monetary gambling, loot box purchases were still associated with at-risk and problem gambling in both samples. As expected, these other predictors attenuated the predictive value of recent loot box purchases in relation to gambling problems. The odds-ratios, nevertheless, were still in the predicted direction and remained significant. When controlling for monetary gambling, age and gender, recent loot box purchasing increased the odds of problem gambling 3.7 to 6.0 times, and at-risk gambling 2.8 to 4.3 times. Discussion and conclusions While causal relationships between loot box purchasing and problem gambling remain unclear, the results indicate that loot boxes disproportionately attract adolescents experiencing gambling problems, adding to the financial stress already caused by gambling. Consumer protection measures, youth and parental education, and age restrictions on loot box games are needed to protect young people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nerilee Hing
- Experimental Gambling Research Laboratory, School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQUniversity, Australia
| | - Matthew Rockloff
- Experimental Gambling Research Laboratory, School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQUniversity, Australia
| | - Alex M. T. Russell
- Experimental Gambling Research Laboratory, School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQUniversity, Australia
| | - Matthew Browne
- Experimental Gambling Research Laboratory, School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQUniversity, Australia
| | - Philip Newall
- Experimental Gambling Research Laboratory, School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQUniversity, Australia
| | - Nancy Greer
- Experimental Gambling Research Laboratory, School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQUniversity, Australia
| | - Daniel L. King
- College of Education, Psychology, and Social Work, Flinders University, Australia
| | - Hannah Thorne
- Experimental Gambling Research Laboratory, School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQUniversity, Australia
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What’s in the box? Exploring UK players’ experiences of loot boxes in games; the conceptualisation and parallels with gambling. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0263567. [PMID: 35139113 PMCID: PMC8827416 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0263567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Loot boxes are a popular mechanic within many video games, but it remains unclear if some forms of loot boxes can be seen of as gambling. However, the perspectives of players are often neglected, such as whether they see them as ‘fair’ game elements and how closely they feel this aligns with gambling. In this paper, we synthesise a conceptualisation for loot boxes through players’ actual experience and explore if there are any parallels with gambling. Twenty-one participants who played video games took part in the research through either an interview or online survey. Thematic analysis suggested that six themes were core to exploring loot boxes: Random Chance Effects, Attitudes Towards Content, Implementation, Parallels with Gambling, Game Design, and The Player. The results suggested both indirect and direct parallels with gambling from the players experiences. Implications of game design and classifying loot boxes as gambling are discussed in relation to game design and risk factors of gambling and purchasing behaviour.
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Lloyd J, Nicklin LL, Spicer SG, Fullwood C, Uther M, Hinton DP, Parke J, Lloyd H, Close J. Development and Validation of the RAFFLE: A Measure of Reasons and Facilitators for Loot Box Engagement. J Clin Med 2021; 10:5949. [PMID: 34945245 PMCID: PMC8707097 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10245949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Qualitative studies have identified a diverse array of motivations for purchasing items within video games through chance-based mechanisms (i.e., "loot boxes"). Given that some individuals-particularly those at risk of disordered gaming and/or gambling-are prone to over-involvement with loot box purchasing, it is important to have a reliable, valid means of measuring the role of different motivations in driving purchasing behaviour. Building on prior qualitative research, this paper reports the development and validation of the "RAFFLE" scale, to measure the Reasons and Facilitators for Loot box Engagement. A 23-item, seven-factor scale was developed through cognitive interviews (n = 25) followed by two surveys of UK-based gamers who purchase loot boxes; analysed via exploratory (n = 503) and confirmatory (n = 1495) factor analysis, respectively. Subscales encompassed "enhancement'; "progression'; "social pressure'; "distraction/compulsion'; "altruism'; "fear of missing out'; and "resale". The scale showed good criterion and construct validity (correlating well with measures of loot box engagement; the risky loot box index (r = 0.63) and monthly self-reported spend (r = 0.38)), and good internal validity (Cronbach's alpha = 0.84). Parallels with, and divergence from, motivations for related activities of gaming and gambling, and alignment with broader theoretical models of motivation, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Lloyd
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Health and Wellbeing, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK; (C.F.); (M.U.); (D.P.H.)
| | - Laura Louise Nicklin
- Institute of Education, Faculty of Education, Health and Wellbeing, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WS1 3BD, UK;
| | - Stuart Gordon Spicer
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK; (S.G.S.); (H.L.); (J.C.)
| | - Chris Fullwood
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Health and Wellbeing, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK; (C.F.); (M.U.); (D.P.H.)
| | - Maria Uther
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Health and Wellbeing, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK; (C.F.); (M.U.); (D.P.H.)
| | - Daniel P. Hinton
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Health and Wellbeing, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK; (C.F.); (M.U.); (D.P.H.)
| | - Jonathan Parke
- Sophro, Newark Beacon Innovation Centre, Cafferata Way, Newark NG24 2TN, UK;
| | - Helen Lloyd
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK; (S.G.S.); (H.L.); (J.C.)
| | - James Close
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK; (S.G.S.); (H.L.); (J.C.)
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