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Greenhalgh T, MacIntyre CR, Baker MG, Bhattacharjee S, Chughtai AA, Fisman D, Kunasekaran M, Kvalsvig A, Lupton D, Oliver M, Tawfiq E, Ungrin M, Vipond J. Masks and respirators for prevention of respiratory infections: a state of the science review. Clin Microbiol Rev 2024; 37:e0012423. [PMID: 38775460 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00124-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2024] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYThis narrative review and meta-analysis summarizes a broad evidence base on the benefits-and also the practicalities, disbenefits, harms and personal, sociocultural and environmental impacts-of masks and masking. Our synthesis of evidence from over 100 published reviews and selected primary studies, including re-analyzing contested meta-analyses of key clinical trials, produced seven key findings. First, there is strong and consistent evidence for airborne transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and other respiratory pathogens. Second, masks are, if correctly and consistently worn, effective in reducing transmission of respiratory diseases and show a dose-response effect. Third, respirators are significantly more effective than medical or cloth masks. Fourth, mask mandates are, overall, effective in reducing community transmission of respiratory pathogens. Fifth, masks are important sociocultural symbols; non-adherence to masking is sometimes linked to political and ideological beliefs and to widely circulated mis- or disinformation. Sixth, while there is much evidence that masks are not generally harmful to the general population, masking may be relatively contraindicated in individuals with certain medical conditions, who may require exemption. Furthermore, certain groups (notably D/deaf people) are disadvantaged when others are masked. Finally, there are risks to the environment from single-use masks and respirators. We propose an agenda for future research, including improved characterization of the situations in which masking should be recommended or mandated; attention to comfort and acceptability; generalized and disability-focused communication support in settings where masks are worn; and development and testing of novel materials and designs for improved filtration, breathability, and environmental impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trisha Greenhalgh
- Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - C Raina MacIntyre
- Biosecurity Program, The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Michael G Baker
- Department of Public Health, University of Otago, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Shovon Bhattacharjee
- Biosecurity Program, The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
- School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Abrar A Chughtai
- School of Population Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - David Fisman
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mohana Kunasekaran
- Biosecurity Program, The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Amanda Kvalsvig
- Department of Public Health, University of Otago, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Deborah Lupton
- Centre for Social Research in Health and Social Policy Research Centre, Faculty of Arts, Design and Architecture, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Matt Oliver
- Professional Standards Advocate, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Essa Tawfiq
- Biosecurity Program, The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Mark Ungrin
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering; Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Joe Vipond
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Sekhar SC, Pabba M, Tallam A, Fatima S, Butti SK, Vani B, Sahu N, Sundergopal S. Development of a reusable low-cost facemask with a recycled hydrophobic layer for preventive health care. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:36325-36336. [PMID: 36547833 PMCID: PMC9773657 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-24807-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The current work focuses on designing a low-cost, reusable, and highly efficient facemask for protection from respiratory droplets that cause COVID-19, other infection-causing organisms, and dust allergies. Several masks available in the market are single-use that would choke the environment through plastic pollution or are expensive for the commoner to afford. In the present study, the facemask incorporates a waste-derived polyethylene terephthalate (PET) layer and a non-woven polypropylene (PP) layer sandwiched between two tightly woven cotton layers. Combining these layers provides comfort and breathability, besides high bacterial and particulate filtration efficiency. Moreover, the unique PET layer provides mechanical strength and a 3D shape that enables hindrance-free speaking and prevents spectacle fogging. Compared to commercial N95 masks, the developed mask can be reused up to 30 washes and recycled with zero waste discharge ensuing green technology. Moreover, the mask was produced at an affordable cost of Rs. 17 (0.22 USD), including labor charges, and sold at a 100% profit margin @ Rs.35 (0.45 USD) per unit. Further, the mask was certified by neutral testing agencies and provided to a population of more than 6 lakhs, thus significantly contributing to the mitigation of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sugali Chandra Sekhar
- Membrane Separations Laboratory, PETT Department, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, 500 007, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, 201002, India
| | - Manideep Pabba
- Membrane Separations Laboratory, PETT Department, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, 500 007, India
| | - Aarti Tallam
- Membrane Separations Laboratory, PETT Department, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, 500 007, India
| | - Saeed Fatima
- Membrane Separations Laboratory, PETT Department, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, 500 007, India
| | - Sai Kishore Butti
- Membrane Separations Laboratory, PETT Department, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, 500 007, India
| | - Bukke Vani
- Membrane Separations Laboratory, PETT Department, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, 500 007, India
| | - Nivedita Sahu
- Membrane Separations Laboratory, PETT Department, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, 500 007, India
| | - Sridhar Sundergopal
- Membrane Separations Laboratory, PETT Department, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, 500 007, India.
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, 201002, India.
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Photoactive decontamination and reuse of face masks. E-PRIME - ADVANCES IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, ELECTRONICS AND ENERGY 2023:100129. [PMCID: PMC9942455 DOI: 10.1016/j.prime.2023.100129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
The corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has led to global shortages in disposable respirators. Increasing the recycling rate of masks is a direct, low-cost strategy to mitigate COVID-19 transmission. Photoactive decontamination of used masks attracts great attention due to its fast response, remarkable virus inactivation effect and full protection integrity. Here, we review state-of-the-art situation of photoactive decontamination. The basic mechanism of photoactive decontamination is firstly discussed in terms of ultraviolet, photothermal or photocatalytic properties. Among which, ultraviolet radiation damages DNA and RNA to inactivate viruses and microorganisms, and photothermal method damages them by destroying proteins, while photocatalysis kills them by destroying the structure. The practical applications of photoactive decontamination strategies are then fully reviewed, including ultraviolet germicidal irradiation, and unconventional masks made of functional nanomaterials with photothermal or photocatalytic properties. Their performance requirements are elaborated together with the advantages of long-term recycle use. Finally, we put forward challenges and prospects for further development of photoactive decontamination technology.
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Giedraitienė A, Ruzauskas M, Šiugždinienė R, Tučkutė S, Milcius D. Antimicrobial Properties of CuO Particles Deposited on a Medical Mask. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 15:7896. [PMID: 36431382 PMCID: PMC9693313 DOI: 10.3390/ma15227896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Revised: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Medical face masks help to reduce the transmission of pathogens, however, the number of infections caused by antimicrobial-resistant pathogens continues to increase. The aim of this study was to investigate the antimicrobial effect of an experimental medical mask layer coated with copper oxide using an environmentally friendly non-thermal physical vapour deposition approach. Pure CuO nanoparticles were successfully deposited on the middle layer of a face mask. The particles were distributed in different size clusters (starting from less than 100 nm dots going up to about 1 µm cluster-like structures). The CuO clusters did not form uniform films, which could negatively influence airflow during use of the mask. We investigated the antimicrobial properties of the experimental mask layer coated with CuO NPs using 17 clinical and zoonotic strains of gram-negative, gram-positive, spore-forming bacteria and yeasts, during direct and indirect contact with the mask surface. The effectiveness of the coated mask layer depended on the deposition duration of CuO. The optimal time for deposition was 30 min, which ensured a bactericidal effect for both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including antimicrobial-resistant strains, using 150 W power. The CuO NPs had little or no effect on Candida spp. yeasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnė Giedraitienė
- Institute of Microbiology and Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Mickeviciaus 9, 44307 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Modestas Ruzauskas
- Institute of Microbiology and Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Mickeviciaus 9, 44307 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Rita Šiugždinienė
- Institute of Microbiology and Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Mickeviciaus 9, 44307 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Simona Tučkutė
- Center for Hydrogen Energy Technologies, Lithuanian Energy Institute, 44403 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Darius Milcius
- Center for Hydrogen Energy Technologies, Lithuanian Energy Institute, 44403 Kaunas, Lithuania
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A Novel Antipathogenic Agent for Nonwoven Fabric. BIOMEDICAL MATERIALS & DEVICES 2022. [PMCID: PMC9299416 DOI: 10.1007/s44174-022-00001-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
AbstractMedical-grade masks and N95 respirators containing non-woven fibers are designed to prevent the spread of airborne diseases. While they effectively trap respiratory droplets and aerosols, they cannot lyse entrapped pathogens. Embedded antimicrobial agents such as silver, copper, zinc, iodine, peptides, quaternary ammonium salts, or nanoparticles have been used to overcome this limitation. However, their effectiveness remains debatable because these materials can be toxins, allergens, irritants, and environmental hazards. Recently, silicon nitride (Si3N4) was found to be a potent antipathogenic compound, and it may be an ideal agent for masks. In powder or solid form, it is highly effective in inactivating bacteria, fungi, and viruses while leaving mammalian tissue unaffected. The purpose of this study was to serially assess the antiviral efficacy of Si3N4 against SARS-CoV-2 using powders, solids, and embedded nonwoven fabrics. Si3N4 powders and solids were prepared using conventional ceramic processing. The “pad-dry-cure” method was used to embed Si3N4 particles into polypropylene fibers. Fabric testing was subsequently conducted using industrial standards—ISO 18184 for antiviral effectiveness, ASTM F2299 and EN 13274-7 for filtration efficiency, EN 14683 for differential pressure drop, and ISO 18562-2 for particle shedding. A modification of ISO 18562-3 was also employed to detect ammonia release from the fabric. Antiviral effectiveness for Si3N4 powders, solids, and embedded fabrics were 99.99% at ≤ 5 min, ~ 93% in 24 h, and 87% to 92% in 120 min, respectively. Results of the standard mask tests were generally within prescribed safety limits. Further process optimization may lead to commercial Si3N4-based masks that not only “catch” but also “kill” pathogenic microbes.
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Paranthaman MP, Peroutka-Bigus N, Larsen KR, Phadke KS, Summers T, Theodore M, Hensley DK, Levine AM, Lee RJ, Bellaire BH. Effective antiviral coatings for deactivating SARS-CoV-2 virus on N95 respirator masks or filters. MATERIALS TODAY. ADVANCES 2022; 14:100228. [PMID: 35284812 PMCID: PMC8901369 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtadv.2022.100228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The application of antiviral coatings to masks and respirators is a potential mitigating step toward reducing viral transmission during the SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2) pandemic. The use of appropriate masks, social distancing, and vaccines is the immediate solution for limiting the viral spread and protecting people from this virus. N95 respirator masks are effective in filtering the virus particles, but they cannot kill or deactivate the virus. We report a possible approach to deactivating SARS-CoV-2 by applying an antimicrobial coating (Goldshield 75) to masks and respirators, rendering them suitable for repeated use. Masks coated with Goldshield 75 demonstrated continuous inactivation of the Alpha and Beta variants of the SARS-CoV-2 over a 3-day period and no loss of inactivation when stored at temperatures at 50 °C.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nathan Peroutka-Bigus
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
- Interdepartmental Microbiology Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Kristina R Larsen
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
- Interdepartmental Microbiology Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Kruttika S Phadke
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
- Interdepartmental Microbiology Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Tina Summers
- Manufacturing Science Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Merlin Theodore
- Manufacturing Science Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Dale K Hensley
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | | | | | - Bryan H Bellaire
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
- Interdepartmental Microbiology Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
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Surface Functionalization of Non-Woven Fabrics Using a Novel Silica-Resin Coating Technology: Antiviral Treatment of Non-Woven Fabric Filters in Surgical Masks. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19063639. [PMID: 35329324 PMCID: PMC8952221 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19063639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Revised: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Masks are effective for preventing the spread of COVID-19 and other respiratory infections. If antimicrobial properties can be applied to the non-woven fabric filters in masks, they can become a more effective countermeasure against human-to-human and environmental infections. We investigated the possibilities of carrying antimicrobial agents on the fiber surfaces of non-woven fabric filters by applying silica-resin coating technology, which can form silica-resin layers on such fabrics at normal temperature and pressure. Scanning electron microscopy and electron probe microanalysis showed that a silica-resin layer was formed on the fiber surface of non-woven fabric filters. Bioassays for coronavirus and quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reactions (RT-PCR) revealed that all antimicrobial agents tested loaded successfully onto non-woven fabric filters without losing their inactivation effects against the human coronavirus (inhibition efficacy: >99.999%). These results indicate that this technology could be used to load a functional substance onto a non-woven fabric filter by vitrifying its surface. Silica-resin coating technology also has the potential of becoming an important breakthrough not only in the prevention of infection but also in various fields, such as prevention of building aging, protection of various cultural properties, the realization of a plastic-free society, and prevention of environmental pollution.
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