Beneficial Effects of Acetyl-DL-Leucine (ADLL) in a Mouse Model of Sandhoff Disease

Identification of metabolites associated with preserved muscle volume after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage due to high protein supplementation and neuromuscular electrical stimulation

The INSPIRE randomized clinical trial demonstrated that a high protein diet (HPRO) combined with neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) attenuates muscle atrophy and may improve outcomes after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage We sought to identify specific metabolites mediating these effects. Blood samples were collected from subjects on admission prior to randomization to either standard of care (SOC; N = 12) or HPRO + NMES (N = 12) and at 7 days. Untargeted metabolomics were performed for each plasma sample. Sparse partial least squared discriminant analysis identified metabolites differentiating each group. Correlation coefficients were calculated between each metabolite and total protein per day and muscle volume. Multivariable models determined associations between metabolites and muscle volume. Unique metabolites (18) were identified differentiating SOC from HPRO + NMES. Of these, 9 had significant positive correlations with protein intake. In multivariable models, N-acetylleucine was significantly associated with preserved temporalis [OR 1.08 (95% CI 1.01, 1.16)] and quadricep [OR 1.08 (95% CI 1.02, 1.15)] muscle volume. Quinolinate was also significantly associated with preserved temporalis [OR 1.05 (95% CI 1.01, 1.09)] and quadricep [OR 1.04 (95% CI 1.00, 1.07)] muscle volume. N-acetylserine and β-hydroxyisovaleroylcarnitine were associated with preserved temporalis or quadricep volume. Metabolites defining HPRO + NMES had strong correlations with protein intake and were associated with preserved muscle volume.

Blood metabolites and chronic kidney disease: a Mendelian randomization study

BACKGROUND

Human blood metabolites have demonstrated close associations with chronic kidney disease (CKD) in observational studies. Nonetheless, the causal relationship between metabolites and CKD is still unclear. This study aimed to assess the associations between metabolites and CKD risk.

METHODS

We applied a two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis to evaluate relationships between 1400 blood metabolites and eight phenotypes (outcomes) (CKD, estimated glomerular filtration rate(eGFR), urine albumin to creatinine ratio, rapid progress to CKD, rapid decline of eGFR, membranous nephropathy, immunoglobulin A nephropathy, and diabetic nephropathy). The inverse variance weighted (IVW), MR-Egger, and weighted median were used to investigate the causal relationship. Sensitivity analyses were performed with Cochran's Q, MR-Egger intercept, MR-PRESSO Global test, and leave-one-out analysis. Bonferroni correction was used to test the strength of the causal relationship.

RESULTS

Through the MR analysis of 1400 metabolites and eight clinical phenotypes, a total of 48 metabolites were found to be associated with various outcomes. Among them, N-acetylleucine (OR = 0.923, 95%CI: 0.89-0.957, PIVW = 1.450 × 10-5) has a strong causal relationship with lower risk of CKD after the Bonferroni-corrected test, whereas Glycine to alanine ratio has a strong causal relationship with higher risk of CKD (OR = 1.106, 95%CI: 1.063-1.151, PIVW = 5.850 × 10-7). No horizontal pleiotropy and heterogeneity were detected.

CONCLUSION

Our study offers groundbreaking insights into the integration of metabolomics and genomics to reveal the pathogenesis of and therapeutic strategies for CKD. It underscores 48 metabolites as potential causal candidates, meriting further investigation.

[What's behind cerebellar dizziness? - News on diagnosis and therapy]

Vertigo and dizziness comprise a multisensory and multidisciplinary syndrome of different etiologies. The term "cerebellar vertigo and dizziness" comprises a heterogenous group of disorders with clinical signs of cerebellar dysfunction and is caused by vestibulo-cerebellar, vestibulo-spinal or cerebellar systems. About 10 % of patients in an outpatient clinic for vertigo and balance disorders suffer from cerebellar vertigo and dizziness. According to the course of the symptoms, one can considers 3 types: permanent complaints, recurrent episodes of vertigo and balance disorders, or an acute onset of complaints. The most common diagnoses in patients with cerebellar vertigo and dizziness were as follows: degenerative disease, hereditary forms and acquired forms. In a subgroup of patients with cerebellar vertigo, central cerebellar oculomotor dysfunction is indeed the only clinical correlate of the described symptoms. 81 % of patients with cerebellar vertigo suffer from permanent, persistent vertigo and dizziness, 31 % from vertigo attacks, and 21 % from both. Typical clinical cerebellar signs, including gait and limb ataxia or dysarthria, were found less frequently. Key to diagnosis is a focused history as well as a thorough clinical examination with particular attention to oculomotor function. Regarding oculomotor examination, the most common findings were saccadic smooth pursuit, gaze-evoked nystagmus, provocation nystagmus, rebound nystagmus, central fixation nystagmus, most commonly downbeat nystagmus, and disturbances of saccades. Thus, oculomotor examination is very sensitive in diagnosing cerebellar vertigo and dizziness, but not specific in distinguishing different etiologies. Laboratory examinations using posturography and a standardized gait analysis can support the diagnosis, but also help to estimate the risk of falls and to quantify the course and possible symptomatic treatment effects. Patients with cerebellar vertigo and dizziness should receive multimodal treatment.

Innate immune sensing of lysosomal dysfunction drives multiple lysosomal storage disorders

Lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs), which are characterized by genetic and metabolic lysosomal dysfunctions, constitute over 60 degenerative diseases with considerable health and economic burdens. However, the mechanisms driving the progressive death of functional cells due to lysosomal defects remain incompletely understood, and broad-spectrum therapeutics against LSDs are lacking. Here, we found that various gene abnormalities that cause LSDs, including Hexb, Gla, Npc1, Ctsd and Gba, all shared mutual properties to robustly autoactivate neuron-intrinsic cGAS-STING signalling, driving neuronal death and disease progression. This signalling was triggered by excessive cytoplasmic congregation of the dsDNA and DNA sensor cGAS in neurons. Genetic ablation of cGAS or STING, digestion of neuronal cytosolic dsDNA by DNase, and repair of neuronal lysosomal dysfunction alleviated symptoms of Sandhoff disease, Fabry disease and Niemann-Pick disease, with substantially reduced neuronal loss. We therefore identify a ubiquitous mechanism mediating the pathogenesis of a variety of LSDs, unveil an inherent connection between lysosomal defects and innate immunity, and suggest a uniform strategy for curing LSDs.

The Effects of N-Acetyl-L-Leucine on the Improvement of Symptoms in a Patient with Multiple Sulfatase Deficiency

Multiple Sulfatase Deficiency (MSD) is a rare autosomal recessive disease with specific clinical findings such as psychomotor retardation and neurological deterioration. No therapy is available for this genetic disorder. Previous studies have shown that N-acetyl-L-leucine (NALL) can improve the neurological inflammation in the cerebellum.In the current study, the effects of NALL on ataxia symptoms and quality of life were explored in a patient with MSD.This study was a crossover case study. The subject, a girl aged 12 years old, received NALL at a dose of 3 g/day (1 g in the morning, 1 g in the afternoon, and 1 g in the evening). A fasting blood sample was taken from the subject to evaluate side effects before the intervention and 4 weeks after taking supplement/placebo in every study stage. The ataxia moving symptoms were evaluated using the Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia (SARA) score in every study stage. Dietary intake was measured using 24-h dietary recall before and after the intervention. The diet compositions were assessed by Nutritionist IV software. Serum IL-6 level was measured using an ELISA kit.There was no significant change in complete blood count (CBC) and serum biochemical factors in the patient with MSD after receiving NALL (3 g/day) over 4 weeks. The SARA score was reduced by 25%. The gait whose maximum score accounts for approximately one-fifth of the maximum total SARA score (8/40) was decreased. The heel-to-shin slide, the only SARA item performed without visual control, was also improved after therapy. Furthermore, there was a downward trend in the 8MWT (8.71 to 7.93 s). Regarding quality of life assessments, the parent and child reported improved quality of life index, physical health, and emotional function after taking NALL. Moreover, total energy intake was increased with NALL treatment through the study period.Supplementation with NALL at a dose of 3 g/day over 4 weeks was well tolerated and improved ataxia symptoms, quality of life measure, and serum IL-6 levels in the patient with MSD. Further proof-of-concept trials are warranted to confirm the present findings.

High-Protein Supplementation and Neuromuscular Electric Stimulation after Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Increases Systemic Amino Acid and Oxidative Metabolism: A Plasma Metabolomics Approach

Background The INSPIRE randomized clinical trial demonstrated that a high protein diet (HPRO) combined with neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) attenuates muscle atrophy and may improve functional outcomes after aSAH. Using an untargeted metabolomics approach, we sought to identify specific metabolites mediating these effects. Methods Blood samples were collected from subjects on admission prior to randomization to either standard of care (SOC; N=12) or HPRO+NMES (N=12) and at 7 days as part of the INSPIRE protocol. Untargeted metabolomics were performed for each plasma sample. Paired fold changes were calculated for each metabolite among subjects in the HPRO+NMES group at baseline and 7 days after intervention. Changes in metabolites from baseline to 7 days were compared for the HPRO+NMES and SOC groups. Sparse partial least squared discriminant analysis (sPLS-DA) identified metabolites discriminating each group. Pearson's correlation coefficients were calculated between each metabolite and total protein per day, nitrogen balance, and muscle volume Multivariable models were developed to determine associations between each metabolite and muscle volume. Results A total of 18 unique metabolites were identified including pre and post treatment and differentiating SOC vs HPRO+NMES. Of these, 9 had significant positive correlations with protein intake: N-acetylserine (ρ=0.61, P =1.56x10 -3 ), N-acetylleucine (ρ=0.58, P =2.97x10 -3 ), β-hydroxyisovaleroylcarnitine (ρ=0.53, P =8.35x10 -3 ), tiglyl carnitine (ρ=0.48, P =0.0168), N-acetylisoleucine (ρ=0.48, P =0.0183), N-acetylthreonine (ρ=0.47, P =0.0218), N-acetylkynurenine (ρ=0.45, P =0.0263), N-acetylvaline (ρ=0.44, P =0.0306), and urea (ρ=0.43, P =0.0381). In multivariable regression models, N-acetylleucine was significantly associated with preserved temporalis [OR 1.08 (95%CI 1.01, 1.16)] and quadricep [OR 1.08 (95%CI 1.02, 1.15)] muscle volume. Quinolinate was also significantly associated with preserved temporalis [OR 1.05 (95%CI 1.01, 1.09)] and quadricep [OR 1.04 (95%CI 1.00, 1.07)] muscle volume. N-acetylserine, N-acetylcitrulline, and b-hydroxyisovaleroylcarnitine were also associated with preserved temporalis or quadricep volume. Conclusions Metabolites defining the HPRO+NMES intervention mainly consisted of amino acid derivatives. These metabolites had strong correlations with protein intake and were associated with preserved muscle volume.

Inborn Errors of Metabolism with Ataxia: Current and Future Treatment Options

A number of hereditary ataxias are caused by inborn errors of metabolism (IEM), most of which are highly heterogeneous in their clinical presentation. Prompt diagnosis is important because disease-specific therapies may be available. In this review, we offer a comprehensive overview of metabolic ataxias summarized by disease, highlighting novel clinical trials and emerging therapies with a particular emphasis on first-in-human gene therapies. We present disease-specific treatments if they exist and review the current evidence for symptomatic treatments of these highly heterogeneous diseases (where cerebellar ataxia is part of their phenotype) that aim to improve the disease burden and enhance quality of life. In general, a multimodal and holistic approach to the treatment of cerebellar ataxia, irrespective of etiology, is necessary to offer the best medical care. Physical therapy and speech and occupational therapy are obligatory. Genetic counseling is essential for making informed decisions about family planning.

Advances in cerebellar disorders: pre-clinical models, therapeutic targets, and challenges

INTRODUCTION

Cerebellar ataxias (CAs) represent neurological disorders with multiple etiologies and a high phenotypic variability. Despite progress in the understanding of pathogenesis, few therapies are available so far. Closing the loop between preclinical studies and therapeutic trials is important, given the impact of CAs upon patients' health and the roles of the cerebellum in multiple domains. Because of a rapid advance in research on CAs, it is necessary to summarize the main findings and discuss future directions.

AREAS COVERED

We focus our discussion on preclinical models, cerebellar reserve, the therapeutic management of CAs, and suitable surrogate markers. We searched Web of Science and PubMed using keywords relevant to cerebellar diseases, therapy, and preclinical models.

EXPERT OPINION

There are many symptomatic and/or disease-modifying therapeutic approaches under investigation. For therapy development, preclinical studies, standardization of disease evaluation, safety assessment, and demonstration of clinical improvements are essential. Stage of the disease and the level of the cerebellar reserve determine the goals of the therapy. Deficits in multiple categories and heterogeneity of CAs may require disease-, stage-, and symptom-specific therapies. More research is needed to clarify how therapies targeting the cerebellum influence both basal ganglia and the cerebral cortex, poorly explored domains in CAs.

N-acetyl-L-leucine for Niemann-Pick type C: a multinational double-blind randomized placebo-controlled crossover study

BACKGROUND

Niemann-Pick disease type C (NPC) is a rare autosomal recessive neurodegenerative lysosomal disease characterized by multiple symptoms such as progressive cerebellar ataxia and cognitive decline. The modified amino acid N-acetyl-leucine has been associated with positive symptomatic and neuroprotective, disease-modifying effects in various studies, including animal models of NPC, observational clinical case studies, and a multinational, rater-blinded phase IIb clinical trial. Here, we describe the development of a study protocol (Sponsor Code "IB1001-301") for the chronic treatment of symptoms in adult and pediatric patients with NPC.

METHODS

This multinational double-blind randomized placebo-controlled crossover phase III study will enroll patients with a genetically confirmed diagnosis of NPC patients aged 4 years and older across 16 trial sites. Patients are assessed during a baseline period and then randomized (1:1) to one of two treatment sequences: IB1001 followed by placebo or vice versa. Each sequence consists of a 12-week treatment period. The primary efficacy endpoint is based on the Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia, and secondary outcomes include cerebellar functional rating scales, clinical global impression, and quality of life assessments.

DISCUSSION

Pre-clinical as well as observational and phase IIb clinical trials have previously demonstrated that IB1001 rapidly improved symptoms, functioning, and quality of life for pediatric and adult NPC patients and is safe and well tolerated. In this placebo-controlled cross-over trial, the risk/benefit profile of IB1001 for NPC will be evaluated. It will also give information about the applicability of IB1001 as a therapeutic paradigm for other rare and common neurological disorders.

TRIAL REGISTRATIONS

The trial (IB1001-301) has been registered at www.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov (NCT05163288) and www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu (EudraCT: 2021-005356-10). Registered on 20 December 2021.

Efficacy and Safety of N-Acetyl-l-Leucine in Children and Adults With GM2 Gangliosidoses

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

GM2 gangliosidoses (Tay-Sachs and Sandhoff diseases) are rare, autosomal recessive, neurodegenerative diseases with no available symptomatic or disease-modifying treatments. This clinical trial investigated N-acetyl-l-leucine (NALL), an orally administered, modified amino acid in pediatric (≥6 years) and adult patients with GM2 gangliosidoses.

METHODS

In this phase IIb, multinational, open-label, rater-blinded study (IB1001-202), male and female patients aged ≥6 years with a genetically confirmed diagnosis of GM2 gangliosidoses received orally administered NALL for a 6-week treatment period (4 g/d in patients ≥13 years, weight-tiered doses for patients 6-12 years), followed by a 6-week posttreatment washout period. For the primary Clinical Impression of Change in Severity analysis, patient performance on a predetermined primary anchor test (the 8-Meter Walk Test or the 9-Hole Peg Test) at baseline, after 6 weeks on NALL, and again after a 6-week washout period was videoed and evaluated centrally by blinded raters. Secondary outcomes included assessments of ataxia, clinical global impression, and quality of life.

RESULTS

Thirty patients between the age of 6 and 55 years were enrolled. Twenty-nine had an on-treatment assessment and were included in the primary modified intention-to-treat analysis. The study met its CI-CS primary end point (mean difference 0.71, SD = 2.09, 90% CI 0.00, 1.50, p = 0.039), as well as secondary measures of ataxia and global impression. NALL was safe and well tolerated, with no serious adverse reactions.

DISCUSSION

Treatment with NALL was associated with statistically significant and clinically relevant changes in functioning and quality of life in patients with GM2 gangliosidosis. NALL was safe and well tolerated, contributing to an overall favorable risk:benefit profile. NALL is a promising, easily administered (oral) therapeutic option for these rare, debilitating diseases with immense unmet medical needs.

TRIAL REGISTRATION INFORMATION

The trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03759665; registered on November 30, 2018), EudraCT (2018-004406-25), and DRKS (DRKS00017539). The first patient was enrolled on June 7, 2019.

CLASSIFICATION OF EVIDENCE

This study provides Class IV evidence that NALL improves outcomes for patients with GM2 gangliosidoses.

Acetyl-DL-leucine in cerebellar ataxia ([18F]-FDG-PET study): how does a cerebellar disorder influence cortical sensorimotor networks?

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to deepen our insights into central compensatory processes of brain networks in patients with cerebellar ataxia (CA) before and with treatment with acetyl-DL-leucine (AL) by means of resting-state [¹⁸F]-FDG-PET brain imaging.

METHODS

Retrospective analyses of [¹⁸F]-FDG-PET data in 22 patients with CA (with vestibular and ocular motor disturbances) of different etiologies who were scanned before (PET A) and on AL treatment (PET B). Group subtraction analyses, e.g., for responders and non-responders, comparisons with healthy controls and correlation analyses of regional cerebral glucose metabolism (rCGM) with symptom duration, ataxia (SARA) and quality of life (QoL) scores were calculated.

RESULTS

Prior to treatment rCGM was consistently downregulated at the cerebellar level and increased in multisensory cortical areas, e.g., somatosensory, primary and secondary visual (including V5, precuneus), secondary vestibular (temporal gyrus, anterior insula), and premotor/supplementary motor areas. With AL (PET B vs. A) cerebellar hypometabolism was deepened and sensorimotor hypermetabolism increased only in responders with clinical benefit, but not for the non-responders and the whole CA group. A positive correlation of ataxia improvement with rCGM was found in visual and vestibular cortices, a negative correlation in cerebellar and brainstem areas. QoL showed a positive correlation with rCGM in the cerebellum and symptom duration in premotor and somatosensory areas.

CONCLUSIONS

Central compensatory processes in CA mainly involve multisensory visual, vestibular, and somatosensory networks as well as premotor/primary motor areas at the cortical level. The enhanced divergence of cortical sensorimotor up- and cerebellar downregulation with AL in responders could reflect amplification of inhibitory cerebellar mechanisms.

Safety and Efficacy of Acetyl-DL-Leucine in Certain Types of Cerebellar Ataxia: The ALCAT Randomized Clinical Crossover Trial

IMPORTANCE

Cerebellar ataxia is a neurodegenerative disease impairing motor function characterized by ataxia of stance, gait, speech, and fine motor disturbances.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of the modified essential amino acid acetyl-DL-leucine in treating patients who have cerebellar ataxia.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

The Acetyl-DL-leucine on Cerebellar Ataxia (ALCAT) trial was an investigator-initiated, multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical crossover trial. The study was conducted at 7 university hospitals in Germany and Austria between January 25, 2016, and February 17, 2017. Patients were aged at least 18 years and diagnosed with cerebellar ataxia of hereditary (suspected or genetically confirmed) or nonhereditary or unknown type presenting with a total score of at least 3 points on the Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia (SARA). Statistical analysis was performed from April 2018 to June 2018 and January 2020 to March 2020.

INTERVENTIONS

Patients were randomly assigned (1:1) to receive acetyl-DL-leucine orally (5 g per day after 2 weeks up-titration) followed by a matched placebo, each for 6 weeks, separated by a 4-week washout, or vice versa. The randomization was done via a web-based, permuted block-wise randomization list (block size, 2) that was stratified by disease subtype (hereditary vs nonhereditary or unknown) and site.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Primary efficacy outcome was the absolute change of SARA total score from (period-dependent) baseline to week 6.

RESULTS

Among 108 patients who were randomly assigned to sequence groups (54 patients each), 55 (50.9%) were female; the mean (SD) age was 54.8 (14.4) years; and the mean (SD) SARA total score was 13.33 (5.57) points. The full analysis set included 105 patients (80 patients with hereditary, 25 with nonhereditary or unknown cerebellar ataxia). There was no evidence of a difference in the mean absolute change from baseline to week 6 in SARA total scores between both treatments (mean treatment difference: 0.23 points [95% CI, -0.40 to 0.85 points]).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

In this large multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical crossover trial, acetyl-DL-leucine in the investigated dosage and treatment duration was not superior to placebo for the symptomatic treatment of certain types of ataxia. The drug was well tolerated; and ALCAT yielded valuable information about the duration of treatment periods and the role of placebo response in cerebellar ataxia. These findings suggest that further symptom-oriented trials are needed for evaluating the long-term effects of acetyl-DL-leucine for well-defined subgroups of cerebellar ataxia.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

EudraCT 2015-000460-34.

Efficacy and safety of N-acetyl-L-leucine in Niemann-Pick disease type C

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the safety and efficacy of N-acetyl-L-leucine (NALL) on symptoms, functioning, and quality of life in pediatric (≥ 6 years) and adult Niemann-Pick disease type C (NPC) patients.

METHODS

In this multi-national, open-label, rater-blinded Phase II study, patients were assessed during a baseline period, a 6-week treatment period (orally administered NALL 4 g/day in patients ≥ 13 years, weight-tiered doses for patients 6-12 years), and a 6-week post-treatment washout period. The primary Clinical Impression of Change in Severity (CI-CS) endpoint (based on a 7-point Likert scale) was assessed by blinded, centralized raters who compared randomized video pairs of each patient performing a pre-defined primary anchor test (8-Meter Walk Test or 9-Hole Peg Test) during each study periods. Secondary outcomes included cerebellar functional rating scales, clinical global impression, and quality of life assessments.

RESULTS

33 subjects aged 7-64 years with a confirmed diagnosis of NPC were enrolled. 32 patients were included in the primary modified intention-to-treat analysis. NALL met the CI-CS primary endpoint (mean difference 0.86, SD = 2.52, 90% CI 0.25, 1.75, p = 0.029), as well as secondary endpoints. No treatment-related serious adverse events occurred.

CONCLUSIONS

NALL demonstrated a statistically significant and clinical meaningfully improvement in symptoms, functioning, and quality of life in 6 weeks, the clinical effect of which was lost after the 6-week washout period. NALL was safe and well-tolerated, informing a favorable benefit-risk profile for the treatment of NPC. CLINICALTRIALS.

GOV IDENTIFIER

NCT03759639.

Efficient Neuroprotective Rescue of Sacsin-Related Disease Phenotypes in Zebrafish

Autosomal recessive spastic ataxia of Charlevoix-Saguenay (ARSACS) is a multisystem hereditary ataxia associated with mutations in SACS, which encodes sacsin, a protein of still only partially understood function. Although mouse models of ARSACS mimic largely the disease progression seen in humans, their use in the validation of effective therapies has not yet been proposed. Recently, the teleost Danio rerio has attracted increasing attention as a vertebrate model that allows rapid and economical screening, of candidate molecules, and thus combines the advantages of whole-organism phenotypic assays and in vitro high-throughput screening assays. Through CRISPR/Cas9-based mutagenesis, we generated and characterized a zebrafish sacs-null mutant line that replicates the main features of ARSACS. The sacs-null fish showed motor impairment, hindbrain atrophy, mitochondrial dysfunction, and reactive oxygen species accumulation. As proof of principle for using these mutant fish in high-throughput screening studies, we showed that both acetyl-DL-leucine and tauroursodeoxycholic acid improved locomotor and biochemical phenotypes in sacs^−/− larvae treated with these neuroprotective agents, by mediating significant rescue of the molecular functions altered by sacsin loss. Taken together, the evidence here reported shows the zebrafish to be a valuable model organism for the identification of novel molecular mechanisms and for efficient and rapid in vivo optimization and screening of potential therapeutic compounds. These findings may pave the way for new interventions targeting the earliest phases of Purkinje cell degeneration in ARSACS.

Acetylation turns leucine into a drug by membrane transporter switching

Small changes to molecules can have profound effects on their pharmacological activity as exemplified by the addition of the two-carbon acetyl group to make drugs more effective by enhancing their pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic properties. N-acetyl-D,L-leucine is approved in France for vertigo and its L-enantiomer is being developed as a drug for rare and common neurological disorders. However, the precise mechanistic details of how acetylation converts leucine into a drug are unknown. Here we show that acetylation of leucine switches its uptake into cells from the L-type amino acid transporter (LAT1) used by leucine to organic anion transporters (OAT1 and OAT3) and the monocarboxylate transporter type 1 (MCT1). Both the kinetics of MCT1 (lower affinity compared to LAT1) and the ubiquitous tissue expression of MCT1 make it well suited for uptake and distribution of N-acetyl-L-leucine. MCT1-mediated uptake of a N-acetyl-L-leucine as a prodrug of leucine bypasses LAT1, the rate-limiting step in activation of leucine-mediated signalling and metabolic process inside cells such as mTOR. Converting an amino acid into an anion through acetylation reveals a way for the rational design of drugs to target anion transporters.

N-Acetyl-L-leucine improves functional recovery and attenuates cortical cell death and neuroinflammation after traumatic brain injury in mice

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of mortality and long-term disability around the world. Even mild to moderate TBI can lead to lifelong neurological impairment due to acute and progressive neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation induced by the injury. Thus, the discovery of novel treatments which can be used as early therapeutic interventions following TBI is essential to restrict neuronal cell death and neuroinflammation. We demonstrate that orally administered N-acetyl-l-leucine (NALL) significantly improved motor and cognitive outcomes in the injured mice, led to the attenuation of cell death, and reduced the expression of neuroinflammatory markers after controlled cortical impact (CCI) induced experimental TBI in mice. Our data indicate that partial restoration of autophagy flux mediated by NALL may account for the positive effect of treatment in the injured mouse brain. Taken together, our study indicates that treatment with NALL would be expected to improve neurological function after injury by restricting cortical cell death and neuroinflammation. Therefore, NALL is a promising novel, neuroprotective drug candidate for the treatment of TBI.

Acetyl-leucine slows disease progression in lysosomal storage disorders

Acetyl-dl-leucine is a derivative of the branched chain amino acid leucine. In observational clinical studies, acetyl-dl-leucine improved symptoms of ataxia, in particular in patients with the lysosomal storage disorder, Niemann-Pick disease type C1. Here, we investigated acetyl-dl-leucine and its enantiomers acetyl-l-leucine and acetyl-d-leucine in symptomatic Npc1^-/- mice and observed improvement in ataxia with both individual enantiomers and acetyl-dl-leucine. When acetyl-dl-leucine and acetyl-l-leucine were administered pre-symptomatically to Npc1^-/- mice, both treatments delayed disease progression and extended life span, whereas acetyl-d-leucine did not. These data are consistent with acetyl-l-leucine being the neuroprotective enantiomer. Altered glucose and antioxidant metabolism were implicated as one of the potential mechanisms of action of the l-enantiomer in Npc1^-/- mice. When the standard of care drug miglustat and acetyl-dl-leucine were used in combination significant synergy resulted. In agreement with these pre-clinical data, when Niemann-Pick disease type C1 patients were evaluated after 12 months of acetyl-dl-leucine treatment, rates of disease progression were slowed, with stabilization or improvement in multiple neurological domains. A beneficial effect of acetyl-dl-leucine on gait was also observed in this study in a mouse model of GM2 gangliosidosis (Sandhoff disease) and in Tay-Sachs and Sandhoff disease patients in individual-cases of off-label-use. Taken together, we have identified an unanticipated neuroprotective effect of acetyl-l-leucine and underlying mechanisms of action in lysosomal storage diseases, supporting its further evaluation in clinical trials in lysosomal disorders.