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Dadashi A, Azadi M. Optimization of 3D printing parameters in polylactic acid bio-metamaterial under cyclic bending loading considering fracture features. Heliyon 2024; 10:e26357. [PMID: 38404784 PMCID: PMC10884862 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e26357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024] Open
Abstract
3D printing has become a crucial additive manufacturing technique with the applications in various industries. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is a common additive manufacturing process that offers considerable flexibility in the component fabrication through multiple parameters, which strongly influence the properties of the produced parts. This study focused on the impact of different printing parameters on the fatigue behavior of polylactic acid (PLA). The standard samples were 3D-printed with varying speed (5, 10, and 15 mm/s), print temperature (180, 210, and 240 °C), and nozzle diameter (0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 mm). The fatigue properties were evaluated through rotating bending fatigue tests, and a model was developed based on the results with a statistical analysis. The model accuracy was validated and the interactions between the parameters were analyzed. The optimization study found that a print speed of 5 mm/s, print temperature of 210 °C, and nozzle diameter of 0.2 mm were optimal. The fracture surfaces were also examined using a scanning electron microscopy, revealing the presence of crazing despite the brittle behavior of PLA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Dadashi
- Research Laboratory of Advanced Materials Behavior (AMB), Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran
| | - Mohammad Azadi
- Research Laboratory of Advanced Materials Behavior (AMB), Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran
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2
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Sola A, Trinchi A. Recycling as a Key Enabler for Sustainable Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Composites: A Critical Perspective on Fused Filament Fabrication. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:4219. [PMID: 37959900 PMCID: PMC10649055 DOI: 10.3390/polym15214219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM, aka 3D printing) is generally acknowledged as a "green" technology. However, its wider uptake in industry largely relies on the development of composite feedstock for imparting superior mechanical properties and bespoke functionality. Composite materials are especially needed in polymer AM, given the otherwise poor performance of most polymer parts in load-bearing applications. As a drawback, the shift from mono-material to composite feedstock may worsen the environmental footprint of polymer AM. This perspective aims to discuss this chasm between the advantage of embedding advanced functionality, and the disadvantage of causing harm to the environment. Fused filament fabrication (FFF, aka fused deposition modelling, FDM) is analysed here as a case study on account of its unparalleled popularity. FFF, which belongs to the material extrusion (MEX) family, is presently the most widespread polymer AM technique for industrial, educational, and recreational applications. On the one hand, the FFF of composite materials has already transitioned "from lab to fab" and finally to community, with far-reaching implications for its sustainability. On the other hand, feedstock materials for FFF are thermoplastic-based, and hence highly amenable to recycling. The literature shows that recycled thermoplastic materials such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA), acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET, or its glycol-modified form PETG) can be used for printing by FFF, and FFF printed objects can be recycled when they are at the end of life. Reinforcements/fillers can also be obtained from recycled materials, which may help valorise waste materials and by-products from a wide range of industries (for example, paper, food, furniture) and from agriculture. Increasing attention is being paid to the recovery of carbon fibres (for example, from aviation), and to the reuse of glass fibre-reinforced polymers (for example, from end-of-life wind turbines). Although technical challenges and economical constraints remain, the adoption of recycling strategies appears to be essential for limiting the environmental impact of composite feedstock in FFF by reducing the depletion of natural resources, cutting down the volume of waste materials, and mitigating the dependency on petrochemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Sola
- Advanced Materials and Processing, Manufacturing Business Unit, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3169, Australia
| | - Adrian Trinchi
- Advanced Materials and Processing, Manufacturing Business Unit, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3169, Australia
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Nazir MH, Al-Marzouqi AH, Ahmed W, Zaneldin E. The potential of adopting natural fibers reinforcements for fused deposition modeling: Characterization and implications. Heliyon 2023; 9:e15023. [PMID: 37089374 PMCID: PMC10113796 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Natural fibers or their derivatives have gained significant attention as green fillers or reinforcement materials due to their abundant availability, environment-friendly nature and biodegradability for sustainable development. Despite the availability of modern alternatives such as concrete, glass-fiber/resin composites, steel, and plastics, there is still considerable demand for naturally occurring based materials for different applications due to their low cost, durability, strength, heat, sound, and fire-resistance characteristics. 3D printing has provided a novel approach to the development and advancement of natural fiber-based composite materials, as well as an important platform for the advancement of biomass materials toward intelligentization and industrialization. The features of 3D printing, particularly fast prototyping and small start-up, allow the easy fabrication of materials for a wide range of applications. This review highlights the current progress and potential commercial applications of 3D printed composites reinforced with natural fibers or biomass. This study discussed that 3D printing technology can be effectively utilized for different applications, including producing electroactive papers, fuel cell membranes, adhesives, wastewater treatment, biosensors, and its potential applications in the automobile, building, and construction industries. The research in the literature showed that even if the field of 3D printing has advanced significantly, problems still need to be solved, such as material incompatibility and material cost. Further studies could be conducted to improve and adapt the methods to work with various materials. More effort should be put into developing affordable printer technologies and materials that work with these printers to broaden the applications for 3D printed objects.
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Degradation Behavior of 3D-Printed Residue of Astragalus Particle/Poly(Lactic Acid) Biocomposites under Soil Conditions. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15061477. [PMID: 36987257 PMCID: PMC10058707 DOI: 10.3390/polym15061477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Astragalus is widely cultivated in China, and the residue of Astragalus particles (ARP) can be used as reinforcements in fused filament-fabricated (FFF) natural fiber/Poly(lactic acid)(PLA) biocomposites. To clarify the degradation behavior of such biocomposites, 3D-printed 11 wt% ARP/PLA samples were buried in soil, and the effects of soil burial duration on the physical appearance, weight, flexural properties, morphology, thermal stability, melting, and crystallization properties were investigated. At the same time, 3D-printed PLA was chosen as a reference. The results showed that, with prolonged soil burial, the transparency of PLA decreased (but not obviously), while the surface photographs of ARP/PLA became gray with some black spots and crevices; especially after 60 days, the color of the samples became extremely heterogeneous. After soil burial, the weight, flexural strength, and flexural modulus of the printed samples all reduced, and greater losses happened to ARP/PLA pieces than pure PLA. With an increase in soil burial time, the glass transition, cold crystallization, and melting temperatures, as well as the thermal stability of PLA and ARP/PLA samples, all increased gradually. Additionally, soil burial had a greater effect on the thermal properties of ARP/PLA. The results showed that the degradation behavior of ARP/PLA was more significantly affected by soil burial than the behavior of PLA. Additionally, ARP/PLA more easily degraded in soil than PLA.
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Xu D, Shi J, Qiu R, Lei W, Yu W. Comparative Investigations on Properties of Three Kinds of FDM 3D-Printed Natural Plant Powder/Poly(lactic acid) Biocomposites. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15030557. [PMID: 36771858 PMCID: PMC9921445 DOI: 10.3390/polym15030557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
In order to further explore the feasibility of the application of the residue of Chinese herbal medicine in FDM 3D technology and enrich the kinds of printing materials, Astragalus residue powder(ARP)/poly(lactic acid) (PLA) biocomposite was FDM 3D-printed, meanwhile, two traditional biocomposites, i.e., wood flour (WF)/PLA and rice straw powder (RSP)/PLA, were prepared by the same method, and the properties of the biocomposites were comparatively investigated. The results showed that, the tensile and flexural strengths of ARP/PLA were 28.33 MPa and 97.60 MPa, respectively, which were 2.85% and 10.89% smaller than those of WF/PLA, while 15.73% and 7.04% greater than those of RSP/PLA. WF/PLA showed typical brittle fracture characteristics, ARP/PLA and RSP/PLA both showed ductile fracture, but not obviously. Among the three kinds of biocomposites, ARP/PLA was the most thermally stable, followed by WF/PLA and RSP/PLA in turn. The incorporation of natural plant powder had no significant effect on the glassy transition, melting, and cold-crystallization behaviors of PLA, but the crystallinity of PLA could be increased from 0.3% to 2.0% and 1.9%, respectively, by adding ARP and WF. At 20 °C, the storage modulus of ARP/PLA, WF/PLA and RSP/PLA was 2759.4 MPa, 3361.3 MPa, and 2691.5 MPa, respectively, indicating that WF/PLA has the greatest stiffness, and the stiffness of RSP/PLA was the least. In addition to these, all the biocomposites were hydrophilic, the contact angle of the distilled water on the surface of ARP/PLA, WF/PLA or RSP/PLA was correspondingly 73.5°, 77.6° and 71.2°. Overall, it can be concluded that ARP/PLA has moderate strengths, stiffness and wettability, meanwhile, it is the most thermal stable among the three biocomposites, and can be processed at a temperature close to that of PLA. ARP/PLA is suitable as a new kind of feedstock material for FDM 3D printing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dezhi Xu
- College of Science, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
- Organization Department of the Party Committee, Nanjing Vocational University of Industry Technology, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Jianan Shi
- College of Science, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Rui Qiu
- College of Science, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Wen Lei
- College of Science, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
- Correspondence: (W.L.); (W.Y.); Tel.: +86-25-8542-7621 (W.L.); +86-25-8542-7621 (W.Y.)
| | - Wangwang Yu
- College of Science, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Nanjing Vocational University of Industry Technology, Nanjing 210023, China
- Correspondence: (W.L.); (W.Y.); Tel.: +86-25-8542-7621 (W.L.); +86-25-8542-7621 (W.Y.)
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Colombian Sustainability Perspective on Fused Deposition Modeling Technology: Opportunity to Develop Recycled and Biobased 3D Printing Filaments. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15030528. [PMID: 36771829 PMCID: PMC9921848 DOI: 10.3390/polym15030528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2022] [Revised: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
In the context of the preservation of natural resources, researchers show a growing interest in developing eco-friendly materials based on recycled polymers and natural fiber biocomposites to minimize plastic and agroindustrial waste pollution. The development of new materials must be integrated within the circular economy concepts to guarantee sustainable production. In parallel, fused deposition modeling, an additive manufacturing technology, provides the opportunity to use these new materials in an efficient and sustainable manner. This review presents the context of plastics and agro-industrial fiber pollution, followed by the opportunity to give them added value by applying circular economy concepts and implementing these residues to develop new materials for the manufacture of fused deposition modeling 3D printing technique feedstock. Colombian perspective is highlighted since 3D printing technology is growing there, and Colombian biodiversity represents a high reservoir of materials. Also, recycling in Colombia promotes compliance with the 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals.
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N’Gatta KM, Belaid H, El Hayek J, Assanvo EF, Kajdan M, Masquelez N, Boa D, Cavaillès V, Bechelany M, Salameh C. 3D printing of cellulose nanocrystals based composites to build robust biomimetic scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Sci Rep 2022; 12:21244. [PMID: 36482172 PMCID: PMC9732347 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-25652-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) are drawing increasing attention in the fields of biomedicine and healthcare owing to their durability, biocompatibility, biodegradability and excellent mechanical properties. Herein, we fabricated using fused deposition modelling technology 3D composite scaffolds from polylactic acid (PLA) and CNC extracted from Ficus thonningii. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that the printed scaffolds exhibit interconnected pores with an estimated average pore size of approximately 400 µm. Incorporating 3% (w/w) of CNC into the composite improved PLA mechanical properties (Young's modulus increased by ~ 30%) and wettability (water contact angle decreased by ~ 17%). The mineralization process of printed scaffolds using simulated body fluid was validated and nucleation of hydroxyapatite confirmed. Additionally, cytocompatibility tests revealed that PLA and CNC-based PLA scaffolds are non-toxic and compatible with bone cells. Our design, based on rapid 3D printing of PLA/CNC composites, combines the ability to control the architecture and provide improved mechanical and biological properties of the scaffolds, which opens perspectives for applications in bone tissue engineering and in regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanga Marius N’Gatta
- grid.4444.00000 0001 2112 9282Institut Européen des Membranes, IEM, UMR 5635, Univ Montpellier, ENSCM, CNRS, Montpellier, France ,grid.452889.a0000 0004 0450 4820Laboratoire de Thermodynamique et de Physico-Chimie du Milieu, UFR SFA, Université Nangui Abrogoua, 02 BP 801, Abidjan 02, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Habib Belaid
- grid.4444.00000 0001 2112 9282Institut Européen des Membranes, IEM, UMR 5635, Univ Montpellier, ENSCM, CNRS, Montpellier, France ,grid.121334.60000 0001 2097 0141IRCM, Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier, INSERM U1194, Université Montpellier, 34298 Montpellier, France
| | - Joelle El Hayek
- grid.4444.00000 0001 2112 9282Institut Européen des Membranes, IEM, UMR 5635, Univ Montpellier, ENSCM, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Edja Florentin Assanvo
- grid.452889.a0000 0004 0450 4820Laboratoire de Thermodynamique et de Physico-Chimie du Milieu, UFR SFA, Université Nangui Abrogoua, 02 BP 801, Abidjan 02, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Marilyn Kajdan
- grid.121334.60000 0001 2097 0141IRCM, Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier, INSERM U1194, Université Montpellier, 34298 Montpellier, France
| | - Nathalie Masquelez
- grid.4444.00000 0001 2112 9282Institut Européen des Membranes, IEM, UMR 5635, Univ Montpellier, ENSCM, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - David Boa
- grid.452889.a0000 0004 0450 4820Laboratoire de Thermodynamique et de Physico-Chimie du Milieu, UFR SFA, Université Nangui Abrogoua, 02 BP 801, Abidjan 02, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Vincent Cavaillès
- grid.121334.60000 0001 2097 0141IRCM, Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier, INSERM U1194, Université Montpellier, 34298 Montpellier, France
| | - Mikhael Bechelany
- grid.4444.00000 0001 2112 9282Institut Européen des Membranes, IEM, UMR 5635, Univ Montpellier, ENSCM, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Chrystelle Salameh
- grid.4444.00000 0001 2112 9282Institut Européen des Membranes, IEM, UMR 5635, Univ Montpellier, ENSCM, CNRS, Montpellier, France
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Gauss C, Pickering KL, Tshuma J, McDonald-Wharry J. Production and Assessment of Poly(Lactic Acid) Matrix Composites Reinforced with Regenerated Cellulose Fibres for Fused Deposition Modelling. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:3991. [PMID: 36235936 PMCID: PMC9571083 DOI: 10.3390/polym14193991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Additive manufacturing can be a valuable tool to process polymeric composites reinforced with bio-based fibres, extending their use and opening new opportunities for more environmentally friendly materials. In this work, poly(lactic acid) (PLA) composites reinforced with regenerated cellulose fibres (lyocell) were processed into novel filaments and used for 3D printing. The Young's modulus of the filaments increased with the addition of fibres, but substantial porosity was observed in formulations with 20 and 30 wt% of fibre content. Nonetheless, the composites were easily printed, and the formulation with 10 wt% of fibres presented the best tensile properties of 3D printed samples with average tensile strength, Young's modulus, and strain at break of 64.2 MPa, 4.56 GPa, and 4.93%, respectively. It has been shown in this study that the printing process contributes to fibre alignment with small variations depending on the printing speed. Printed composite samples also had superior thermo-mechanical stability with a storage modulus up to 72 times higher than for neat PLA at 80 °C after the composite samples were heat-treated. In general, this work supports the potential use of regenerated cellulose fibres to reinforce PLA for 3D printing applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Gauss
- Division of Health, Engineering, Computing & Science, School of Engineering, The University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3216, New Zealand
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Fico D, Rizzo D, Casciaro R, Esposito Corcione C. A Review of Polymer-Based Materials for Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF): Focus on Sustainability and Recycled Materials. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14030465. [PMID: 35160455 PMCID: PMC8839523 DOI: 10.3390/polym14030465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), one of the most encouraging additive manufacturing (AM) techniques, has fascinated great attention. Although FFF is growing into a manufacturing device with considerable technological and material innovations, there still is a challenge to convert FFF-printed prototypes into functional objects for industrial applications. Polymer components manufactured by FFF process possess, in fact, low and anisotropic mechanical properties, compared to the same parts, obtained by using traditional building methods. The poor mechanical properties of the FFF-printed objects could be attributed to the weak interlayer bond interface that develops during the layer deposition process and to the commercial thermoplastic materials used. In order to increase the final properties of the 3D printed models, several polymer-based composites and nanocomposites have been proposed for FFF process. However, even if the mechanical properties greatly increase, these materials are not all biodegradable. Consequently, their waste disposal represents an important issue that needs an urgent solution. Several scientific researchers have therefore moved towards the development of natural or recyclable materials for FFF techniques. This review details current progress on innovative green materials for FFF, referring to all kinds of possible industrial applications, and in particular to the field of Cultural Heritage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Fico
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell’Innovazione, Università del Salento, Edificio P, Campus Ecotekne, S.P. 6 Lecce-Monteroni, 73100 Lecce, Italy;
| | - Daniela Rizzo
- Dipartimento di Beni Culturali, Università del Salento, Via D. Birago 64, 73100 Lecce, Italy; (D.R.); (R.C.)
| | - Raffaele Casciaro
- Dipartimento di Beni Culturali, Università del Salento, Via D. Birago 64, 73100 Lecce, Italy; (D.R.); (R.C.)
| | - Carola Esposito Corcione
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell’Innovazione, Università del Salento, Edificio P, Campus Ecotekne, S.P. 6 Lecce-Monteroni, 73100 Lecce, Italy;
- Correspondence:
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Mandala R, Bannoth AP, Akella S, Rangari VK, Kodali D. A short review on fused deposition modeling
3D
printing of bio‐based polymer nanocomposites. J Appl Polym Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/app.51904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Radhika Mandala
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Vignan Institute of Technology & Science Deshmukhi Hyderabad India
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad India
| | - Anjaneya Prasad Bannoth
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad India
| | - Suresh Akella
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Sreyas Institute of Engineering and Technology Hyderabad India
| | - Vijaya K. Rangari
- Department of Materials Science Engineering Tuskegee University Tuskegee USA
| | - Deepa Kodali
- Department of Materials Science Engineering Tuskegee University Tuskegee USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Christian Brothers University Memphis USA
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Muck D, Tomc HG, Elesini US, Ropret M, Leskovšek M. Colour Fastness to Various Agents and Dynamic Mechanical Characteristics of Biocomposite Filaments and 3D Printed Samples. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13213738. [PMID: 34771295 PMCID: PMC8588260 DOI: 10.3390/polym13213738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the study was to analyse the colour fastness of 3D printed samples that could be used as decorative or household items. Such items are often fabricated with 3D printing. The colour of filaments affects not only the mechanical properties, but also the appearance and user satisfaction. Samples of biocomposite filaments (PLA and PLA with added wood and hemp fibres) were used. First, the morphological properties of the filaments and 3D printed samples were analysed and then, the colour fastness against different agents was tested (water, oil, detergent, light and elevated temperature). Finally, the dynamic mechanical properties of the filaments and 3D printed samples were determined. The differences in the morphology of the filaments and 3D printed samples were identified with SEM analysis. The most obvious differences were observed in the samples with wood fibres. All printed samples showed good resistance to water and detergents, but poorer resistance to oil. The sample printed with filaments with added wood fibres showed the lowest colour fastness against light and elevated temperatures. Compared to the filaments, the glass transition of the printed samples increased, while their stiffness decreased significantly. The lowest elasticity was observed in the samples with wood fibres. The filaments to which hemp fibres were added showed the reinforcement effect. Without the influence on their elasticity, the printed samples can be safely used between 60 and 65 °C.
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Jamadi AH, Razali N, Petrů M, Taha MM, Muhammad N, Ilyas RA. Effect of Chemically Treated Kenaf Fibre on Mechanical and Thermal Properties of PLA Composites Prepared through Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13193299. [PMID: 34641115 PMCID: PMC8512317 DOI: 10.3390/polym13193299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural fibre as a reinforcing agent has been widely used in many industries in this era. However, the reinforcing agent devotes a better strength when embedded with a polymer matrix. Nevertheless, the characteristic of natural fibre and polymer matrix are in contrast, as natural fibre is hydrophilic, while polymer is hydrophobic in nature. Natural fibre is highly hydrophilic due to the presence of a hydroxyl group (-OH), while polymer matrix has an inherent hydrophobic characteristic which repels water. This issue has been fixed by modifying the natural fibre’s surface using a chemical treatment combining an alkaline treatment and a silane coupling agent. This modifying process of natural fibre might reduce the attraction of water and moisture content and increase natural fibre surface roughness, which improves the interfacial bonding between these two phases. In this paper, the effect of alkaline and silane treatment has been proven by performing the mechanical test, Scanning Electron Micrograph (SEM), and Fourier Transform Infrared spectrometry (FTIR) to observe the surface structure. The chemical compositions and thermal properties of the composites have been obtained by performing Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) tests. 1.0% silane treatment displayed better strength performance as compared to other composites, which was proven by performing Scanning Electron Micrograph (SEM). The assumption is that by enduring chemical treatment, kenaf fibre composites could develop high performance in industry applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aida Haryati Jamadi
- Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Melaka 76100, Malaysia; (A.H.J.); (N.M.)
| | - Nadlene Razali
- Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Melaka 76100, Malaysia; (A.H.J.); (N.M.)
- Centre for Advanced Research on Energy, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Melaka 76100, Malaysia;
- Correspondence: (N.R.); (M.P.)
| | - Michal Petrů
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Liberec, Studentská 2, 46117 Liberec, Czech Republic
- Correspondence: (N.R.); (M.P.)
| | - Mastura Mohammad Taha
- Centre for Advanced Research on Energy, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Melaka 76100, Malaysia;
- Fakulti Teknologi Kejuruteraan Mekanikal dan Pembuatan, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Melaka 76100, Malaysia
| | - Noryani Muhammad
- Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Melaka 76100, Malaysia; (A.H.J.); (N.M.)
- Centre for Advanced Research on Energy, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Melaka 76100, Malaysia;
| | - Rushdan Ahmad Ilyas
- School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Malaysia;
- Centre for Advanced Composite Materials (CACM), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Malaysia
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Rajendran Royan NR, Leong JS, Chan WN, Tan JR, Shamsuddin ZSB. Current State and Challenges of Natural Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites as Feeder in FDM-Based 3D Printing. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13142289. [PMID: 34301046 PMCID: PMC8309324 DOI: 10.3390/polym13142289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
As one of the fastest-growing additive manufacturing (AM) technologies, fused deposition modelling (FDM) shows great potential in printing natural fibre-reinforced composites (NFRC). However, several challenges, such as low mechanical properties and difficulty in printing, need to be overcome. Therefore, the effort to improve the NFRC for use in AM has been accelerating in recent years. This review attempts to summarise the current approaches of using NFRC as a feeder for AM. The effects of fibre treatments, composite preparation methods and addition of compatibilizer agents were analysed and discussed. Additionally, current methods of producing feeders from NFRCs were reviewed and discussed. Mechanical property of printed part was also dependent on the printing parameters, and thus the effects of printing temperature, layer height, infill and raster angle were discussed, and the best parameters reported by other researchers were identified. Following that, an overview of the mechanical properties of these composites as reported by various researchers was provided. Next, the use of optimisation techniques for NFRCs was discussed and analysed. Lastly, the review provided a critical discussion on the overall topic, identified all research gaps present in the use of NFRC for AM processes, and to overcome future challenges.
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Lee CH, Padzil FNBM, Lee SH, Ainun ZMA, Abdullah LC. Potential for Natural Fiber Reinforcement in PLA Polymer Filaments for Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) Additive Manufacturing: A Review. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13091407. [PMID: 33925266 PMCID: PMC8123616 DOI: 10.3390/polym13091407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In this review, the potential of natural fiber and kenaf fiber (KF) reinforced PLA composite filament for fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D-printing technology is highlighted. Additive manufacturing is a material-processing method in which the addition of materials layer by layer creates a three-dimensional object. Unfortunately, it still cannot compete with conventional manufacturing processes, and instead serves as an economically effective tool for small-batch or high-variety product production. Being preformed of composite filaments makes it easiest to print using an FDM 3D printer without or with minimum alteration to the hardware parts. On the other hand, natural fiber-reinforced polymer composite filaments have gained great attention in the market. However, uneven printing, clogging, and the inhomogeneous distribution of the fiber-matrix remain the main challenges. At the same time, kenaf fibers are one of the most popular reinforcements in polymer composites. Although they have a good record on strength reinforcement, with low cost and light weight, kenaf fiber reinforcement PLA filament is still seldom seen in previous studies. Therefore, this review serves to promote kenaf fiber in PLA composite filaments for FDM 3D printing. To promote the use of natural fiber-reinforced polymer composite in AM, eight challenges must be solved and carried out. Moreover, some concerns arise to achieve long-term sustainability and market acceptability of KF/PLA composite filaments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ching Hao Lee
- Laboratory of Biocomposites, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
- Correspondence: (C.H.L.); (F.N.B.M.P.); (S.H.L.); (Z.M.A.A.); (L.C.A.)
| | - Farah Nadia Binti Mohammad Padzil
- Laboratory of Biopolymer and Derivatives, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
- Correspondence: (C.H.L.); (F.N.B.M.P.); (S.H.L.); (Z.M.A.A.); (L.C.A.)
| | - Seng Hua Lee
- Laboratory of Biopolymer and Derivatives, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
- Correspondence: (C.H.L.); (F.N.B.M.P.); (S.H.L.); (Z.M.A.A.); (L.C.A.)
| | - Zuriyati Mohamed Asa’ari Ainun
- Laboratory of Biopolymer and Derivatives, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
- Correspondence: (C.H.L.); (F.N.B.M.P.); (S.H.L.); (Z.M.A.A.); (L.C.A.)
| | - Luqman Chuah Abdullah
- Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
- Correspondence: (C.H.L.); (F.N.B.M.P.); (S.H.L.); (Z.M.A.A.); (L.C.A.)
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Abstract
Polylactic acid (PLA) is the most widely used raw material in extrusion-based three-dimensional (3D) printing (fused deposition modeling, FDM approach) in many areas since it is biodegradable and environmentally friendly, however its utilization is limited due to some of its disadvantages such as mechanical weakness, water solubility rate, etc. FDM is a simple and more cost-effective fabrication process compared to other 3D printing techniques. Unfortunately, there are deficiencies of the FDM approach, such as mechanical weakness of the FDM parts compared to the parts produced by the conventional injection and compression molding methods. Preparation of PLA composites with suitable additives is the most useful technique to improve the properties of the 3D-printed PLA parts obtained by the FDM method. In the last decade, newly developed PLA composites find large usage areas both in academic and industrial circles. This review focuses on the chemistry and properties of pure PLA and also the preparation methods of the PLA composites which will be used as a raw material in 3D printers. The main drawbacks of the pure PLA filaments and the necessity for the preparation of PLA composites which will be employed in the FDM-based 3D printing applications is also discussed in the first part. The current methods to obtain PLA composites as raw materials to be used as filaments in the extrusion-based 3D printing are given in the second part. The applications of the novel PLA composites by utilizing the FDM-based 3D printing technology in the fields of biomedical, tissue engineering, human bone repair, antibacterial, bioprinting, electrical conductivity, electromagnetic, sensor, battery, automotive, aviation, four-dimensional (4D) printing, smart textile, environmental, and luminescence applications are presented and critically discussed in the third part of this review.
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Brčić M, Kršćanski S, Brnić J. Rotating Bending Fatigue Analysis of Printed Specimens from Assorted Polymer Materials. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13071020. [PMID: 33806096 PMCID: PMC8037379 DOI: 10.3390/polym13071020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Fused filament fabrication (FFF), as a form of additive manufacturing (AM), in recent years, has become a popular method to manufacture prototypes, as well as functional parts. FFF is an extrusion process, commonly known as 3D printing, where the object is built by depositing melted material layer by layer. The most common materials, i.e., the materials that are most widely used, are polylactic acid (PLA), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and acrylonitrile styrene acrylate (ASA). Although there are lot of research papers that cover the subject of the determination of mechanical properties and characteristics, theoretically and experimentally, as well as the fatigue characteristics of aforementioned materials, there is a lack of research and scientific papers dealing with the problematics of S–N curves based on the rotating bending fatigue analysis of those materials. Consequently, this paper covers the topic of rotating bending fatigue data for 3D printed specimens of given materials, under different loading values.
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17
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Towards More Sustainable Materials for Geo-Environmental Engineering: The Case of Geogrids. SUSTAINABILITY 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/su13052585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Plastic materials are widely used in geotechnical engineering, especially as geosynthetics. The use of plastic-based products involves serious environmental risks caused by their degradation. Innovative research has been focusing on biodegradable polymers of natural origin, especially on poly(lactic acid) (PLA), to reduce the use of plastics. This study aims to explore the potentiality of biopolymers for the production of geogrids, measuring the chemical and mechanical characteristics of raw materials and of prototype samples, similar to those available on the market. First, chemical composition and optical purity were determined by hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR) and polarimetry. Furthermore, samples of uniaxial and biaxial geogrids were custom-molded using a professional 3D printer. Mechanical properties were measured both on the filament and on the prototype geogrids. The maximum tensile resistance was 6.76 kN/m for the neat-PLA filament and 10.14 kN/m for uniaxial prototype geogrids produced with PLA-based polymer mixed with titanium dioxide. PLA-based materials showed higher tensile properties than polypropylene (PP), the most common petroleum derivative. Conversely, such biomaterials seem to be more brittle and with scarce elongation rate respect PP. Nonetheless, these results are encouraging and can support the use of PLA-based materials for innovative biodegradable geosynthetics production, especially if used in combination with live plants.
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Guessasma S, Belhabib S, Altin A. On the Tensile Behaviour of Bio-sourced 3D-Printed Structures from a Microstructural Perspective. Polymers (Basel) 2020; 12:polym12051060. [PMID: 32384658 PMCID: PMC7284503 DOI: 10.3390/polym12051060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2020] [Revised: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The influence of the microstructural arrangement of 3D-printed polylactic acid (PLA) on its mechanical properties is studied using both numerical and experimental approaches. Thermal cycling during the laying down of PLA filament is investigated through infra-red measurements for different printing conditions. The microstructure induced by 3D printing is determined using X-ray micro-tomography. The mechanical properties are measured under tensile testing conditions. Finite element computation is considered to predict the mechanical performance of 3D-printed PLA by converting the acquired 3D images into structural meshes. The results confirm the leading role of the printing temperature on thermal cycling during the laying down process. In addition, the weak influence of the printing temperature on the stiffness of 3D-printed PLA is explained by the relatively small change in porosity content. However, the influence of the printing temperature on the ultimate properties is found to be substantial. This major influence is explained from finite element predictions as an effect of pore connectivity which is found to be the control factor for tensile strength.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofiane Guessasma
- INRAE, UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages, F-44300 Nantes, France
- Correspondence: or ; Tel.: +33-2406-750-36
| | - Sofiane Belhabib
- IUMR CNRS GEPEA, Université de Nantes, Oniris, CNRS, GEPEA, UMR 6144 F-44000 Nantes, France;
| | - Abdullah Altin
- Department of mechanical and metal technology, University of Yuzuncu Yil, Van Vocational of Higher School, 65100 Van, Turkey;
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Mazzanti V, Malagutti L, Mollica F. FDM 3D Printing of Polymers Containing Natural Fillers: A Review of their Mechanical Properties. Polymers (Basel) 2019; 11:polym11071094. [PMID: 31261607 PMCID: PMC6680682 DOI: 10.3390/polym11071094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Revised: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
As biodegradable thermoplastics are more and more penetrating the market of filaments for fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing, fillers in the form of natural fibers are convenient: They have the clear advantage of reducing cost, yet retaining the filament biodegradability characteristics. In plastics that are processed through standard techniques (e.g., extrusion or injection molding), natural fibers have a mild reinforcing function, improving stiffness and strength, it is thus interesting to evaluate whether the same holds true also in the case of FDM produced components. The results analyzed in this review show that the mechanical properties of the most common materials, i.e., acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) and PLA, do not benefit from biofillers, while other less widely used polymers, such as the polyolefins, are found to become more performant. Much research has been devoted to studying the effect of additive formulation and processing parameters on the mechanical properties of biofilled 3D printed specimens. The results look promising due to the relevant number of articles published in this field in the last few years. This notwithstanding, not all aspects have been explored and more could potentially be obtained through modifications of the usual FDM techniques and the devices that have been used so far.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Mazzanti
- Department of Engineering, Università degli Studi di Ferrara, via Saragat 1, Ferrara 44122, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Malagutti
- Department of Engineering, Università degli Studi di Ferrara, via Saragat 1, Ferrara 44122, Italy
| | - Francesco Mollica
- Department of Engineering, Università degli Studi di Ferrara, via Saragat 1, Ferrara 44122, Italy.
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Rahim TNAT, Abdullah AM, Md Akil H. Recent Developments in Fused Deposition Modeling-Based 3D Printing of Polymers and Their Composites. POLYM REV 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/15583724.2019.1597883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tuan Noraihan Azila Tuan Rahim
- School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | - Abdul Manaf Abdullah
- School of Dental Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Hazizan Md Akil
- School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
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21
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Low-Frequency Noise Reduction by Earmuffs with Coir and Coir/Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polypropylene Ear Cups. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/app7111121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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