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Azimi B, Rasti A, Fusco A, Macchi T, Ricci C, Hosseinifard MA, Guazzelli L, Donnarumma G, Bagherzadeh R, Latifi M, Roy I, Danti S, Lazzeri A. Bacterial Cellulose Electrospun Fiber Mesh Coated with Chitin Nanofibrils for Eardrum Repair. Tissue Eng Part A 2024; 30:340-356. [PMID: 37962275 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2023.0242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, we develop a bio-based and bioactive nanofibrous patch based on bacterial cellulose (BC) and chitin nanofibrils (CNs) using an ionic liquid as a solvent for BC, aimed at tympanic membrane (TM) repair. Electrospun BC nanofiber meshes were produced via electrospinning, and surface-modified with CNs using electrospray. The rheology of the BC/ionic liquid system was investigated. The obtained CN/BC meshes underwent comprehensive morphological, physicochemical, and mechanical characterization. Cytotoxicity tests were conducted using L929 mouse fibroblasts, revealing a cell viability of 97.8%. In vivo tests on rabbit skin demonstrated that the patches were nonirritating. Furthermore, the CN/BC fiber meshes were tested in vitro using human dermal keratinocytes (HaCaT cells) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells as model cells for TM perforation healing. Both cell types demonstrated successful growth on these scaffolds. The presence of CNs resulted in improved indirect antimicrobial activity of the electrospun fiber meshes. HaCaT cells exhibited an upregulated mRNA expression at 6 and 24 h of key proinflammatory cytokines crucial for the wound healing process, indicating the potential benefits of CNs in the healing response. Overall, this study presents a natural and eco-sustainable fiber mesh with great promise for applications in TM repair, leveraging the synergistic effects of BC and CNs to possibly enhance tissue regeneration and healing. Impact statement Repair of tympanic membrane perforations following chronic otitis media is a main clinical issue in otologic surgery, where the underlying infection obstacles self-healing. To address this challenge, our study proposes a bio-based patch made of nanoscale carbohydrate materials (i.e., bacterial cellulose electrospun fibers and chitin nanofibrils) processed via green solvents. The scaffold is nonirritating in vivo, and cytocompatible with fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and keratinocytes. In epithelial cells, it stimulates the expression of the antimicrobial peptide human beta defensin 2, with a pathway of cytokine expression compatible with the wound healing process. Therefore, it could be applied with unsolved infective pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bahareh Azimi
- Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Atefeh Rasti
- Department of Textile Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alessandra Fusco
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Naples, Italy
| | - Teresa Macchi
- Department of Translational Researches and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Claudio Ricci
- Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | | | | | - Giovanna Donnarumma
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Naples, Italy
| | - Roohollah Bagherzadeh
- Institute for Advanced Textile Materials and Technologies (ATMT), Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Masoud Latifi
- Department of Textile Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ipsita Roy
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Serena Danti
- Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Andrea Lazzeri
- Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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Bhattacharjee R, Negi A, Bhattacharya B, Dey T, Mitra P, Preetam S, Kumar L, Kar S, Das SS, Iqbal D, Kamal M, Alghofaili F, Malik S, Dey A, Jha SK, Ojha S, Paiva-Santos AC, Kesari KK, Jha NK. Nanotheranostics to Target Antibiotic-resistant Bacteria: Strategies and Applications. OPENNANO 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.onano.2023.100138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
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3
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Sharma D, Srivastava S, Kumar S, Sharma PK, Hassani R, Dailah HG, Khalid A, Mohan S. Biodegradable Electrospun Scaffolds as an Emerging Tool for Skin Wound Regeneration: A Comprehensive Review. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:325. [PMID: 37259465 PMCID: PMC9965065 DOI: 10.3390/ph16020325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Skin is designed to protect various tissues, and because it is the largest and first human bodily organ to sustain damage, it has an incredible ability to regenerate. On account of extreme injuries or extensive surface loss, the normal injury recuperating interaction might be inadequate or deficient, bringing about risky and disagreeable circumstances that request the utilization of fixed adjuvants and tissue substitutes. Due to their remarkable biocompatibility, biodegradability, and bioactive abilities, such as antibacterial, immunomodulatory, cell proliferative, and wound mending properties, biodegradable polymers, both synthetic and natural, are experiencing remarkable progress. Furthermore, the ability to convert these polymers into submicrometric filaments has further enhanced their potential (e.g., by means of electrospinning) to impersonate the stringy extracellular grid and permit neo-tissue creation, which is a basic component for delivering a mending milieu. Together with natural biomaterial, synthetic polymers are used to solve stability problems and make scaffolds that can dramatically improve wound healing. Biodegradable polymers, commonly referred to as biopolymers, are increasingly used in other industrial sectors to reduce the environmental impact of material and energy usage as they are fabricated using renewable biological sources. Electrospinning is one of the best ways to fabricate nanofibers and membranes that are very thin and one of the best ways to fabricate continuous nanomaterials with a wide range of biological, chemical, and physical properties. This review paper concludes with a summary of the electrospinning (applied electric field, needle-to-collector distance, and flow rate), solution (solvent, polymer concentration, viscosity, and solution conductivity), and environmental (humidity and temperature) factors that affect the production of nanofibers and the use of bio-based natural and synthetic electrospun scaffolds in wound healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepika Sharma
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medical and Allied Sciences, Galgotias University, Greater Noida 203201, India
| | - Shriyansh Srivastava
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medical and Allied Sciences, Galgotias University, Greater Noida 203201, India
- Department of Pharmacology, Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research University (DPSRU), Sector 3 Pushp Vihar, New Delhi 110017, India
| | - Sachin Kumar
- Department of Pharmacology, Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research University (DPSRU), Sector 3 Pushp Vihar, New Delhi 110017, India
| | - Pramod Kumar Sharma
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medical and Allied Sciences, Galgotias University, Greater Noida 203201, India
| | - Rym Hassani
- Department of Mathematics, University College AlDarb, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hamad Ghaleb Dailah
- Research and Scientific Studies Unit, College of Nursing, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Asaad Khalid
- Substance Abuse and Toxicology Research Centre, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
- Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and Traditional Medicine Research Institute, National Center for Research, Khartoum P.O. Box 2404, Sudan
| | - Syam Mohan
- Substance Abuse and Toxicology Research Centre, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
- School of Health Sciences, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun 248007, India
- Center for Transdisciplinary Research, Department of Pharmacology, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Science, Saveetha Dental College, Saveetha University, Chennai 600077, India
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Deng S, Chen A, Chen W, Lai J, Pei Y, Wen J, Yang C, Luo J, Zhang J, Lei C, Varma SN, Liu C. Fabrication of Biodegradable and Biocompatible Functional Polymers for Anti-Infection and Augmenting Wound Repair. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 15:polym15010120. [PMID: 36616470 PMCID: PMC9823642 DOI: 10.3390/polym15010120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 12/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The problem of bacteria-induced infections threatens the lives of many patients. Meanwhile, the misuse of antibiotics has led to a significant increase in bacterial resistance. There are two main ways to alleviate the issue: one is to introduce antimicrobial agents to medical devices to get local drug releasing and alleviating systemic toxicity and resistance, and the other is to develop new antimicrobial methods to kill bacteria. New antimicrobial methods include cationic polymers, metal ions, hydrophobic structures to prevent bacterial adhesion, photothermal sterilization, new biocides, etc. Biodegradable biocompatible synthetic polymers have been widely used in the medical field. They are often used in tissue engineering scaffolds as well as wound dressings, where bacterial infections in these medical devices can be serious or even fatal. However, such materials usually do not have inherent antimicrobial properties. They can be used as carriers for drug delivery or compounded with other antimicrobial materials to achieve antimicrobial effects. This review focuses on the antimicrobial behavior, preparation methods, and biocompatibility testing of biodegradable biocompatible synthetic polymers. Degradable biocompatible natural polymers with antimicrobial properties are also briefly described. Finally, the medical applications of these polymeric materials are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuhua Deng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Soft Condensed Matter, School of Materials and Energy, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
- Institute of Orthopaedics and Musculoskeletal Science, University College London, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital, London HA4 4LP, UK
| | - Anfu Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Soft Condensed Matter, School of Materials and Energy, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
- Institute of Orthopaedics and Musculoskeletal Science, University College London, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital, London HA4 4LP, UK
- Correspondence: (A.C.); (C.L.)
| | - Weijia Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Soft Condensed Matter, School of Materials and Energy, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Jindi Lai
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Soft Condensed Matter, School of Materials and Energy, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yameng Pei
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Soft Condensed Matter, School of Materials and Energy, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Jiahua Wen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Soft Condensed Matter, School of Materials and Energy, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Can Yang
- Sino-German College of Intelligent Manufacturing, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China
| | - Jiajun Luo
- Centre for the Cellular Microenvironment, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8LT, UK
| | - Jingjing Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Soft Condensed Matter, School of Materials and Energy, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Caihong Lei
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Soft Condensed Matter, School of Materials and Energy, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Swastina Nath Varma
- Institute of Orthopaedics and Musculoskeletal Science, University College London, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital, London HA4 4LP, UK
| | - Chaozong Liu
- Institute of Orthopaedics and Musculoskeletal Science, University College London, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital, London HA4 4LP, UK
- Correspondence: (A.C.); (C.L.)
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Precise Design Strategies of Nanotechnologies for Controlled Drug Delivery. J Funct Biomater 2022; 13:jfb13040188. [PMID: 36278656 PMCID: PMC9590086 DOI: 10.3390/jfb13040188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Rapid advances in nanotechnologies are driving the revolution in controlled drug delivery. However, heterogeneous barriers, such as blood circulation and cellular barriers, prevent the drug from reaching the cellular target in complex physiologic environments. In this review, we discuss the precise design of nanotechnologies to enhance the efficacy, quality, and durability of drug delivery. For drug delivery in vivo, drugs loaded in nanoplatforms target particular sites in a spatial- and temporal-dependent manner. Advances in stimuli-responsive nanoparticles and carbon-based drug delivery platforms are summarized. For transdermal drug delivery systems, specific strategies including microneedles and hydrogel lead to a sustained release efficacy. Moreover, we highlight the current limitations of clinical translation and an incentive for the future development of nanotechnology-based drug delivery.
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6
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Huang LZY, Elbourne A, Shaw ZL, Cheeseman S, Goff A, Orrell-Trigg R, Chapman J, Murdoch BJ, Crawford RJ, Friedmann D, Bryant SJ, Truong VK, Caruso RA. Dual-action silver functionalized nanostructured titanium against drug resistant bacterial and fungal species. J Colloid Interface Sci 2022; 628:1049-1060. [PMID: 36049281 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2022.08.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
HYPOTHESIS Titanium and its alloys are commonly used implant materials. Once inserted into the body, the interface of the biomaterials is the most likely site for the development of implant-associated infections. Imparting the titanium substrate with high-aspect-ratio nanostructures, which can be uniformly achieved using hydrothermal etching, enables a mechanical contact-killing (mechanoresponsive) mechanism of bacterial and fungal cells. Interaction between cells and the surface shows cellular inactivation via a physical mechanism meaning that careful engineering of the interface is needed to optimse the technology. This mechanism of action is only effective towards surface adsorbed microbes, thus any cells not directly in contact with the substrate will survive and limit the antimicrobial efficacy of the titanium nanostructures. Therefore, we propose that a dual-action mechanoresponsive and chemical-surface approach must be utilised to improve antimicrobial activity. The addition of antimicrobial silver nanoparticles will provide a secondary, chemical mechanism to escalate the microbial response in tandem with the physical puncture of the cells. EXPERIMENTS Hydrothermal etching is used as a facile method to impart variant nanostrucutres on the titanium substrate to increase the antimicrobial response. Increasing concentrations (0.25 M, 0.50 M, 1.0 M, 2.0 M) of sodium hydroxide etching solution were used to provide differing degrees of nanostructured morphology on the surface after 3 h of heating at 150 °C. This produced titanium nanospikes, nanoblades, and nanowires, respectively, as a function of etchant concentration. These substrates then provided an interface for the deposition of silver nanoparticles via a reduction pathway. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcous aureus (MRSA) and Candida auris (C. auris) were used as model bacteria and fungi, respectively, to test the effectiveness of the nanostructured titanium with and without silver nanoparticles, and the bio-interactions at the interface. FINDINGS The presence of nanostructure increased the bactericidal response of titanium against MRSA from ∼ 10 % on commercially pure titanium to a maximum of ∼ 60 % and increased the fungicidal response from ∼ 10 % to ∼ 70 % in C. auris. Introducing silver nanoparticles increased the microbiocidal response to ∼ 99 % towards both bacteria and fungi. Importantly, this study highlights that nanostructure alone is not sufficient to develop a highly antimicrobial titanium substrate. A dual-action, physical and chemical antimicrobial approach is better suited to produce highly effective antibacterial and antifungal surface technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louisa Z Y Huang
- School of Science, College of STEM, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Aaron Elbourne
- School of Science, College of STEM, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia.
| | - Z L Shaw
- School of Engineering, College of STEM, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Samuel Cheeseman
- School of Science, College of STEM, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Abigail Goff
- School of Engineering, College of STEM, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Rebecca Orrell-Trigg
- School of Science, College of STEM, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - James Chapman
- School of Science, College of STEM, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Billy J Murdoch
- RMIT Microscopy and Microanalysis Facility, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Russell J Crawford
- School of Science, College of STEM, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Donia Friedmann
- School of Science, College of STEM, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia; School of Chemical Engineering, UNSW Engineering, UNSW, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Saffron J Bryant
- School of Science, College of STEM, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Vi Khanh Truong
- School of Science, College of STEM, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia; College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia.
| | - Rachel A Caruso
- School of Science, College of STEM, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia.
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7
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Wang CC, Wei SC, Luo SC. Recent Advances and Biomedical Applications of Peptide-Integrated Conducting Polymers. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2022; 5:1916-1933. [PMID: 35119258 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.1c01194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Conducting polymers (CPs) are of great interests to researchers around the world in biomedical applications owing to their unique electrical and mechanical properties. Besides, they are easy to fabricate and have long-term stability. These features make CPs a powerful building block of modern biomaterials. Peptide functionalization has been a versatile tool for the development of CP-based biomaterials. With the aid of peptide modifications, the biocompatibility, target selectivity, and cellular interactions of CPs can be greatly improved. Reflecting these aspects, an increasing number of studies on peptide-integrated conducting polymers have been reported recently. In this review, various kinds of peptide immobilization strategies on CPs are introduced. Moreover, the aims of peptide modification are discussed in three aspects: enhancing the specific selectivity, avoiding nonspecific adhesion, and mimicking the environment of extracellular matrix. We highlighted recent studies in the applications of peptide-integrated CPs in electrochemical sensors, antifouling surfaces, and conductive biointerfaces. These studies have shown great potentials from the integration of peptide and CPs as a versatile platform for advanced biological and clinical applications in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Cha Wang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Chen Wei
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital and College of Medicine, No.1 Jen Ai Road, Section 1, Taipei 10051, Taiwan
| | - Shyh-Chyang Luo
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan.,Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Nanomedicine, National Health Research Institutes (NHRI), Miaoli County, 35053 Taiwan
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Zhou Y, Fletcher NF, Zhang N, Hassan J, Gilchrist MD. Enhancement of Antiviral Effect of Plastic Film against SARS-CoV-2: Combining Nanomaterials and Nanopatterns with Scalability for Mass Manufacturing. NANO LETTERS 2021; 21:10149-10156. [PMID: 34881894 PMCID: PMC8672428 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c02266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Direct contact with contaminated surfaces in frequently accessed areas is a confirmed transmission mode of SARS-CoV-2. To address this challenge, we have developed novel plastic films with enhanced effectiveness for deactivating the SARS-CoV-2 by means of nanomaterials combined with nanopatterns. Results prove that these functionalized films are able to deactivate SARS-CoV-2 by up to 2 orders of magnitude within the first hour compared to untreated films, thus reducing the likelihood of transmission. Nanopatterns can enhance the antiviral effectiveness by increasing the contact area between nanoparticles and virus. Significantly, the established process also considers the issue of scalability for mass manufacturing. A low-cost process for nanostructured antiviral films integrating ultrasonic atomization spray coating and thermal nanoimprinting lithography is proposed. A further in-depth investigation should consider the size, spacing, and shape of nanopillars, the type and concentration of nanoparticles, and the scale-up and integration of these processes with manufacturing for optimal antiviral effectiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuyang Zhou
- Centre
of Micro/Nano Manufacturing Technology (MNMT-Dublin), School of Mechanical
and Materials Engineering, University College
Dublin, Dublin D04 KW52, Ireland
- National
Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, College of Textile and Clothing
Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Nicola F. Fletcher
- School
of Veterinary Medicine, University College
Dublin, Dublin D04 KW52, Ireland
- Conway
Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, University College Dublin, Dublin D04 KW52, Ireland
| | - Nan Zhang
- Centre
of Micro/Nano Manufacturing Technology (MNMT-Dublin), School of Mechanical
and Materials Engineering, University College
Dublin, Dublin D04 KW52, Ireland
| | - Jaythoon Hassan
- National
Virus Reference Laboratory, University College
Dublin, Dublin D04 KW52, Ireland
| | - Michael D. Gilchrist
- Centre
of Micro/Nano Manufacturing Technology (MNMT-Dublin), School of Mechanical
and Materials Engineering, University College
Dublin, Dublin D04 KW52, Ireland
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Niculescu AG, Grumezescu AM. Polymer-Based Nanosystems-A Versatile Delivery Approach. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 14:6812. [PMID: 34832213 PMCID: PMC8619478 DOI: 10.3390/ma14226812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Polymer-based nanoparticles of tailored size, morphology, and surface properties have attracted increasing attention as carriers for drugs, biomolecules, and genes. By protecting the payload from degradation and maintaining sustained and controlled release of the drug, polymeric nanoparticles can reduce drug clearance, increase their cargo's stability and solubility, prolong its half-life, and ensure optimal concentration at the target site. The inherent immunomodulatory properties of specific polymer nanoparticles, coupled with their drug encapsulation ability, have raised particular interest in vaccine delivery. This paper aims to review current and emerging drug delivery applications of both branched and linear, natural, and synthetic polymer nanostructures, focusing on their role in vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adelina-Gabriela Niculescu
- Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest, 011061 Bucharest, Romania;
| | - Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu
- Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest, 011061 Bucharest, Romania;
- Research Institute of the University of Bucharest—ICUB, University of Bucharest, 050657 Bucharest, Romania
- Academy of Romanian Scientists, Ilfov no. 3, 50044 Bucharest, Romania
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10
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Silver Nanoparticle-Coated Polyhydroxyalkanoate Based Electrospun Fibers for Wound Dressing Applications. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14174907. [PMID: 34500997 PMCID: PMC8434271 DOI: 10.3390/ma14174907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Wound dressings are high performance and high value products which can improve the regeneration of damaged skin. In these products, bioresorption and biocompatibility play a key role. The aim of this study is to provide progress in this area via nanofabrication and antimicrobial natural materials. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are a bio-based family of polymers that possess high biocompatibility and skin regenerative properties. In this study, a blend of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (P(3HB)) and poly(3-hydroxyoctanoate-co-3-hydroxy decanoate) (P(3HO-co-3HD)) was electrospun into P(3HB))/P(3HO-co-3HD) nanofibers to obtain materials with a high surface area and good handling performance. The nanofibers were then modified with silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) via the dip-coating method. The silver-containing nanofiber meshes showed good cytocompatibility and interesting immunomodulatory properties in vitro, together with the capability of stimulating the human beta defensin 2 and cytokeratin expression in human keratinocytes (HaCaT cells), which makes them promising materials for wound dressing applications.
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11
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Effect of Cu Nanoparticles on the Properties of PP-g-PHMG/PE Monofilament and Its Antifouling Application. INT J POLYM SCI 2021. [DOI: 10.1155/2021/4753301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The modified polyethylene monofilament was prepared by melt blending and spinning using polyethylene (PE), polypropylene-grafted poly(hexamethylene guanidine) (PP-g-PHMG), and Cu nanoparticles (CuNPs). The effect of CuNP content on the structure, mechanical properties, and antimicrobial properties of the monofilaments was studied. In addition, the antifouling property of fishing nets using the modified polyethylene monofilaments was evaluated. The results showed that CuNPs were dispersed homogeneously in the monofilament matrix as microaggregates. The initial increase in the tensile strength of monofilament was attributed to the mechanical restraint, whereas a decrease in the tensile properties at 1.0 wt% CuNP content was due to the predominant effect of a decrease in the total crystallinity. A bacteriostatic test showed that the monofilament had an obvious inhibitory effect on Staphylococcus aureus. Furthermore, coupon test results showed that PP-g-PHMG/PE/CuNP nanocomposite netting had lower weight gain than PP-g-PHMG/PE netting (23.6% reduction) because of the combined antibacterial effect of both PHMG and CuNP. Therefore, PP-g-PHMG/PE/CuNP monofilament has the potential to produce green and efficient antifouling fishing nets.
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Carmona-Ribeiro AM, Araújo PM. Antimicrobial Polymer-Based Assemblies: A Review. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:5424. [PMID: 34063877 PMCID: PMC8196616 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2021] [Revised: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
An antimicrobial supramolecular assembly (ASA) is conspicuous in biomedical applications. Among the alternatives to overcome microbial resistance to antibiotics and drugs, ASAs, including antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and polymers (APs), provide formulations with optimal antimicrobial activity and acceptable toxicity. AMPs and APs have been delivered by a variety of carriers such as nanoparticles, coatings, multilayers, hydrogels, liposomes, nanodisks, lyotropic lipid phases, nanostructured lipid carriers, etc. They have similar mechanisms of action involving adsorption to the cell wall, penetration across the cell membrane, and microbe lysis. APs, however, offer the advantage of cheap synthetic procedures, chemical stability, and improved adsorption (due to multipoint attachment to microbes), as compared to the expensive synthetic routes, poor yield, and subpar in vivo stability seen in AMPs. We review recent advances in polymer-based antimicrobial assemblies involving AMPs and APs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Maria Carmona-Ribeiro
- Biocolloids Laboratory, Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Professor Lineu Prestes 748, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil;
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Scialla S, Martuscelli G, Nappi F, Singh SSA, Iervolino A, Larobina D, Ambrosio L, Raucci MG. Trends in Managing Cardiac and Orthopaedic Device-Associated Infections by Using Therapeutic Biomaterials. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:1556. [PMID: 34066192 PMCID: PMC8151391 DOI: 10.3390/polym13101556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the years, there has been an increasing number of cardiac and orthopaedic implanted medical devices, which has caused an increased incidence of device-associated infections. The surfaces of these indwelling devices are preferred sites for the development of biofilms that are potentially lethal for patients. Device-related infections form a large proportion of hospital-acquired infections and have a bearing on both morbidity and mortality. Treatment of these infections is limited to the use of systemic antibiotics with invasive revision surgeries, which had implications on healthcare burdens. The purpose of this review is to describe the main causes that lead to the onset of infection, highlighting both the biological and clinical pathophysiology. Both passive and active surface treatments have been used in the field of biomaterials to reduce the impact of these infections. This includes the use of antimicrobial peptides and ionic liquids in the preventive treatment of antibiotic-resistant biofilms. Thus far, multiple in vivo studies have shown efficacious effects against the antibiotic-resistant biofilm. However, this has yet to materialize in clinical medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Scialla
- Institute of Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials of National Research Council (IPCB-CNR), 80125 Naples, Italy; (S.S.); (D.L.)
| | - Giorgia Martuscelli
- Multidisciplinary Department of Medical-Surgical and Dental Specialties, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 81100 Naples, Italy;
| | - Francesco Nappi
- Centre Cardiologie du Nord de Saint-Denis, Department of Cardiac Surgery, 93200 Paris, France; (F.N.); (A.I.)
| | | | - Adelaide Iervolino
- Centre Cardiologie du Nord de Saint-Denis, Department of Cardiac Surgery, 93200 Paris, France; (F.N.); (A.I.)
| | - Domenico Larobina
- Institute of Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials of National Research Council (IPCB-CNR), 80125 Naples, Italy; (S.S.); (D.L.)
| | - Luigi Ambrosio
- Institute of Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials of National Research Council (IPCB-CNR), 80125 Naples, Italy; (S.S.); (D.L.)
| | - Maria Grazia Raucci
- Institute of Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials of National Research Council (IPCB-CNR), 80125 Naples, Italy; (S.S.); (D.L.)
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14
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Immunomodulatory Activity of Electrospun Polyhydroxyalkanoate Fiber Scaffolds Incorporating Olive Leaf Extract. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11094006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Olive tree is a well-known source of polyphenols. We prepared an olive leaf extract (OLE) and characterized it via high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. OLE was blended with different polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), namely, poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBHV) and polyhydroxybutyrate/poly(hydroxyoctanoate-co-hydroxydecanoate) (PHB/PHOHD), to produce fiber meshes via electrospinning: OLE/PHBV and OLE/ (PHB/PHOHD), respectively. An 80–90% (w/w%) release of the main polyphenols from the OLE/PHA fibers occurred in 24 h, with a burst release in the first 30 min. OLE and the produced fiber meshes were assayed using human dermal keratinocytes (HaCaT cells) to evaluate the expression of a panel of cytokines involved in the inflammatory process and innate immune response, such as the antimicrobial peptide human beta defensin 2 (HBD-2). Fibers containing OLE were able to decrease the expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines at 6 h up to 24 h. All the PHA fibers allowed an early downregulation of the pro-inflammatory cytokines in 6 h, which is suggestive of a strong anti-inflammatory activity exerted by PHA fibers. Differently from pure OLE, PHB/PHOHD fibers (both with and without OLE) upregulated the expression of HBD-2. Our results showed that PHA fiber meshes are suitable in decreasing pro-inflammatory cytokines and the incorporation of OLE may enable indirect antibacterial properties, which is essential in wound healing and tissue regeneration.
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15
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Poly(vinyl alcohol)/Gelatin Scaffolds Allow Regeneration of Nasal Tissues. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11083651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Need for regeneration and repair of nasal tissues occurs as a consequence of several pathologies affecting the nose, including, but not limited to infective diseases, traumas and tumor resections. A platform for nasal tissue regeneration was set up using poly(vinyl alcohol)/gelatin sponges with 20%–30% (w/w) gelatin content to be used as scaffolds, for their intrinsic hydrophilic, cell adhesive and shape recovery properties. We propose mesodermal progenitor cells (MPCs) isolated from the bone marrow as a unique stem cell source for obtaining different connective tissues of the nose, including vascular tissue. Finally, epithelial cell immune response to these scaffolds was assessed in vitro in an environment containing inflammatory molecules. The results showed that mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) deriving from MPCs could be used to differentiate into cartilage and fibrous tissue; whereas, in combination with endothelial cells still deriving from MPCs, into pre-vascularized bone. Finally, the scaffold did not significantly alter the epithelial cell response to inflammatory insults derived from interaction with bacterial molecules.
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16
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Combined Antimicrobial Effect of Bio-Waste Olive Leaf Extract and Remote Cold Atmospheric Plasma Effluent. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26071890. [PMID: 33810520 PMCID: PMC8037246 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26071890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel strategy involving Olive Leaf Extract (OLE) and Cold Atmospheric Plasma (CAP) was developed as a green antimicrobial treatment. Specifically, we reported a preliminary investigation on the combined use of OLE + CAP against three pathogens, chosen to represent medical and food industries (i.e., E. coli, S. aureus and L. innocua). The results indicated that a concentration of 100 mg/mL (total polyphenols) in OLE can exert an antimicrobial activity, but still insufficient for a total bacterial inactivation. By using plain OLE, we significantly reduced the growth of Gram positive S. aureus and L. innocua, but not Gram-negative E. coli. Instead, we demonstrated a remarkable decontamination effect of OLE + CAP in E. coli, S. aureus and L. innocua samples after 6 h. This effect was optimally maintained up to 24 h in S. aureus strain. E. coli and L. innocua grew again in 24 h. In the latter strain, OLE alone was most effective to significantly reduce bacterial growth. By further adjusting the parameters of OLE + CAP technology, e.g., OLE amount and CAP exposure, it could be possible to prolong the initial powerful decontamination over a longer time. Since OLE derives from a bio-waste and CAP is a non-thermal technology based on ionized air, we propose OLE + CAP as a potential green platform for bacterial decontamination. As a combination, OLE and CAP can lead to better antimicrobial activity than individually and may replace or complement conventional thermal procedures in food and biomedical industries.
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17
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Hussain Z, Pei R. Necessities, opportunities, and challenges for tympanic membrane perforation scaffolding-based bioengineering. Biomed Mater 2021; 16. [PMID: 33260166 DOI: 10.1088/1748-605x/abcf5d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Tympanic membrane (TM) perforation is a global clinical dilemma. It occurs as a consequence of object penetration, blast trauma, barotrauma, and middle ear diseases. TM perforation may lead to otitis media, retraction pockets, cholesteatoma, and conductive deafness. Molecular therapies may not be suitable to treat perforation because there is no underlying tissue matrix to support epithelium bridging. Chronic perforations are usually reconstructed with autologous grafts via surgical myringoplasty. Surgical treatment is uncomfortable for the patients. The grafting materials are not perfect because they produce an opaque membrane, fail in up to 20% of cases, and are suboptimal to restore acoustic function. Millions of patients from developing parts of the world have not got access to surgical grafting due to operational complexities, lack of surgical resources, and high cost. These shortcomings emphasize bioengineering to improve placement options, healing rate, hearing outcomes, and minimize surgical procedures. This review highlights cellular, structural, pathophysiological, and perforation specific determinants that affect healing, acoustic and surgical outcomes; and integrates necessities relevant to bioengineered scaffolds. This study further summarizes scaffolding components, progress in scaffolding strategies and design, and engenders limitations and challenges for optimal bioengineering of chronic perforation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahid Hussain
- School of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Hefei 230026, People's Republic of China
- CAS Key Laboratory for Nano-Bio Interface, Division of Nanobiomedicine, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics (SINANO), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou 215123, People's Republic of China
| | - Renjun Pei
- School of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Hefei 230026, People's Republic of China
- CAS Key Laboratory for Nano-Bio Interface, Division of Nanobiomedicine, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics (SINANO), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou 215123, People's Republic of China
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18
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Abstract
Biocontamination of medical devices and implants is a growing issue that causes medical complications and increased expenses. In the fight against biocontamination, developing synthetic surfaces, which reduce the adhesion of microbes and provide biocidal activity or combinatory effects, has emerged as a major global strategy. Advances in nanotechnology and biological sciences have made it possible to design smart surfaces for decreasing infections. Nevertheless, the clinical performance of these surfaces is highly depending on the choice of material. This review focuses on the antimicrobial surfaces with functional material coatings, such as cationic polymers, metal coatings and antifouling micro-/nanostructures. One of the highlights of the review is providing insights into the virus-inactivating surface development, which might particularly be useful for controlling the currently confronted pandemic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The nanotechnology-based strategies presented here might be beneficial to produce materials that reduce or prevent the transmission of airborne viral droplets, once applied to biomedical devices and protective equipment of medical workers. Overall, this review compiles existing studies in this broad field by focusing on the recent related developments, draws attention to the possible activity mechanisms, discusses the key challenges and provides future recommendations for developing new, efficient antimicrobial and antiviral surface coatings.
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Azimi B, Maleki H, Zavagna L, De la Ossa JG, Linari S, Lazzeri A, Danti S. Bio-Based Electrospun Fibers for Wound Healing. J Funct Biomater 2020; 11:E67. [PMID: 32971968 PMCID: PMC7563280 DOI: 10.3390/jfb11030067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Being designated to protect other tissues, skin is the first and largest human body organ to be injured and for this reason, it is accredited with a high capacity for self-repairing. However, in the case of profound lesions or large surface loss, the natural wound healing process may be ineffective or insufficient, leading to detrimental and painful conditions that require repair adjuvants and tissue substitutes. In addition to the conventional wound care options, biodegradable polymers, both synthetic and biologic origin, are gaining increased importance for their high biocompatibility, biodegradation, and bioactive properties, such as antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, cell proliferative, and angiogenic. To create a microenvironment suitable for the healing process, a key property is the ability of a polymer to be spun into submicrometric fibers (e.g., via electrospinning), since they mimic the fibrous extracellular matrix and can support neo- tissue growth. A number of biodegradable polymers used in the biomedical sector comply with the definition of bio-based polymers (known also as biopolymers), which are recently being used in other industrial sectors for reducing the material and energy impact on the environment, as they are derived from renewable biological resources. In this review, after a description of the fundamental concepts of wound healing, with emphasis on advanced wound dressings, the recent developments of bio-based natural and synthetic electrospun structures for efficient wound healing applications are highlighted and discussed. This review aims to improve awareness on the use of bio-based polymers in medical devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bahareh Azimi
- Interuniversity National Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), 50121 Florence, Italy; (B.A.); (L.Z.); (A.L.)
- Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Homa Maleki
- Department of Carpet, University of Birjand, Birjand 9717434765, Iran
| | - Lorenzo Zavagna
- Interuniversity National Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), 50121 Florence, Italy; (B.A.); (L.Z.); (A.L.)
| | | | | | - Andrea Lazzeri
- Interuniversity National Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), 50121 Florence, Italy; (B.A.); (L.Z.); (A.L.)
- Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Serena Danti
- Interuniversity National Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), 50121 Florence, Italy; (B.A.); (L.Z.); (A.L.)
- Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
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20
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Azimi B, Thomas L, Fusco A, Kalaoglu-Altan OI, Basnett P, Cinelli P, De Clerck K, Roy I, Donnarumma G, Coltelli MB, Danti S, Lazzeri A. Electrosprayed Chitin Nanofibril/Electrospun Polyhydroxyalkanoate Fiber Mesh as Functional Nonwoven for Skin Application. J Funct Biomater 2020; 11:jfb11030062. [PMID: 32899241 PMCID: PMC7565933 DOI: 10.3390/jfb11030062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are a family of bio-based polyesters that have found different biomedical applications. Chitin and lignin, byproducts of fishery and plant biomass, show antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activity on the nanoscale. Due to their polarities, chitin nanofibril (CN) and nanolignin (NL) can be assembled into micro-complexes, which can be loaded with bioactive factors, such as the glycyrrhetinic acid (GA) and CN-NL/GA (CLA) complexes, and can be used to decorate polymer surfaces. This study aims to develop completely bio-based and bioactive meshes intended for wound healing. Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)/Poly(3-hydroxyoctanoate-co-3-hydroxydecanoate), P(3HB)/P(3HO-co-3HD) was used to produce films and fiber meshes, to be surface-modified via electrospraying of CN or CLA to reach a uniform distribution. P(3HB)/P(3HO-co-3HD) fibers with desirable size and morphology were successfully prepared and functionalized with CN and CLA using electrospinning and tested in vitro with human keratinocytes. The presence of CN and CLA improved the indirect antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activity of the electrospun fiber meshes by downregulating the expression of the most important pro-inflammatory cytokines and upregulating human defensin 2 expression. This natural and eco-sustainable mesh is promising in wound healing applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bahareh Azimi
- Interuniversity National Consortiums of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), 50121 Firenze FL, Italy; (B.A.); (A.F.); (P.C.); (G.D.); (M.B.-C.)
- Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa PI, Italy;
| | - Lily Thomas
- Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa PI, Italy;
- Schools of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AT, UK;
| | - Alessandra Fusco
- Interuniversity National Consortiums of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), 50121 Firenze FL, Italy; (B.A.); (A.F.); (P.C.); (G.D.); (M.B.-C.)
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 81100 Caserta CE, Italy
| | - Ozlem Ipek Kalaoglu-Altan
- Centre for Textile Science and Engineering, Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, 9000 Gent, Belgium; (O.I.K.-A.); (K.D.C.)
| | - Pooja Basnett
- School of Life Sciences, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, University of Westminster, London W1W 7BY, UK;
| | - Patrizia Cinelli
- Interuniversity National Consortiums of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), 50121 Firenze FL, Italy; (B.A.); (A.F.); (P.C.); (G.D.); (M.B.-C.)
- Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa PI, Italy;
| | - Karen De Clerck
- Centre for Textile Science and Engineering, Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, 9000 Gent, Belgium; (O.I.K.-A.); (K.D.C.)
| | - Ipsita Roy
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Kroto Research Institute, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TG, UK;
| | - Giovanna Donnarumma
- Interuniversity National Consortiums of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), 50121 Firenze FL, Italy; (B.A.); (A.F.); (P.C.); (G.D.); (M.B.-C.)
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 81100 Caserta CE, Italy
| | - Maria-Beatrice Coltelli
- Interuniversity National Consortiums of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), 50121 Firenze FL, Italy; (B.A.); (A.F.); (P.C.); (G.D.); (M.B.-C.)
- Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa PI, Italy;
| | - Serena Danti
- Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa PI, Italy;
- Correspondence:
| | - Andrea Lazzeri
- Interuniversity National Consortiums of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), 50121 Firenze FL, Italy; (B.A.); (A.F.); (P.C.); (G.D.); (M.B.-C.)
- Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa PI, Italy;
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