Advances in Fabricating the Electrospun Biopolymer-Based Biomaterials

Electrospun nanofibers of collagen and chitosan for tissue engineering and drug delivery applications: A review

Tissue engineering plays a vital role in the medical field that addresses the repair, regeneration, and replacement of damaged tissues or organs. The development of drug-eluting electrospun nanofiber composed of biological macromolecules plays a key role in providing localized drug delivery and structural support. This review examines the recent development and impact of electrospun nanofibers in the field of tissue engineering and explores their potential applications. This review also investigates into the fabrication techniques of nanofibers, highlighting the use of biopolymers like collagen and chitosan, chiefly, focuses on understanding the mechanisms of drug-releasing features of these nanofibers. Studies concerning the medical applications of these nanofibers, such as wound healing, skin regeneration, bone tissue engineering, and neural repair, were also reviewed. Beyond the application in tissue regeneration, this review also explores the potential efficacy of nanofibres in cancer therapy, antibacterial activity, enzyme immobilization, and biosensing applications. This study provides an up-to-date critical insight into the applications of electrospun nanofiber application and key scalable production processes, underscoring the potential economic impacts of advanced wound care technologies. While outlining current challenges, this paper also offers future perspectives on the design, application, and potential expansion of drug-eluting electrospun fibers in medical sciences, ultimately showcasing their pivotal role in advancing therapeutic outcomes.

Recent progress in biopolymer-based electrospun nanofibers and their potential biomedical applications: A review

Tissue engineering offers an alternative approach to developing biological substitutes that restore, maintain, or enhance tissue functionality by integrating principles from medicine, biology, and engineering. In this context, biopolymer-based electrospun nanofibers have emerged as attractive platforms due to their superior physicochemical properties, including excellent biocompatibility, non-toxicity, and desirable biodegradability, compared to synthetic polymers. Considerable efforts have been dedicated to developing suitable substitutes for various biomedical applications, with electrospinning receiving considerable attention as a versatile technique for fabricating nanofibrous platforms. While the applications of biopolymer-based electrospun nanofibers in the biomedical field have been previously reviewed, recent advancements in the electrospinning technique and its specific applications in areas such as bone regeneration, wound healing, drug delivery, and protein/peptide delivery remain underexplored from a material science perspective. This work systematically highlights the effects of biopolymers and critical parameters, including polymer molecular weight, viscosity, applied voltage, flow rate, and tip-to-collector distance, on the resulting nanofiber properties. The selection criteria for different biopolymers tailored to desired biomedical applications are also discussed. Additionally, the challenges and limitations associated with biopolymer-based electrospun nanofibers, alongside future perspectives for advancing their biomedical applications, are rationally analyzed.

Protein and Polysaccharide Fibers via Air Jet Spinning: Emerging Techniques for Biomedical and Sustainable Applications

Polymers play a critical role in the biomedical and sustainable materials fields, serving as key resources for both research and product development. While synthetic and natural polymers are both widely used, synthetic polymers have traditionally dominated due to their ability to meet the specific material requirements of most fiber fabrication methods. However, synthetic polymers are derived from non-renewable resources, and their production raises environmental and health concerns. Natural polymers, on the other hand, are derived from renewable biological sources and include a subset known as biopolymers, such as proteins and polysaccharides, which are produced by living organisms. These biopolymers are naturally abundant and offer benefits such as biodegradability and non-toxicity, making them especially suitable for biomedical and green applications. Recently, air jet spinning has emerged as a promising method for fabricating biopolymer fibers, valued for its simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and safety-advantages that stand out compared to the more conventional electrospinning process. This review examines the methods and mechanisms of air jet spinning, drawing on empirical studies and practical insights to highlight its advantages over traditional fiber production techniques. By assembling natural biopolymers into micro- and nanofibers, this novel fabrication method demonstrates strong potential for targeted applications, including tissue engineering, drug delivery, air filtration, food packaging, and biosensing, utilizing various protein and polysaccharide sources.

Microbial Polysaccharides as Functional Components of Packaging and Drug Delivery Applications

This review examines microbial polysaccharides' properties relevant to their use in packaging and pharmaceutical applications. Microbial polysaccharides are produced by enzymes found in the cell walls of microbes. Xanthan gum, curdlan gum, pullulan, and bacterial cellulose are high-molecular-weight substances consisting of sugar residues linked by glycoside bonds. These polysaccharides have linear or highly branched molecular structures. Packaging based on microbial polysaccharides is readily biodegradable and can be considered as a renewable energy source with the potential to reduce environmental impact. In addition, microbial polysaccharides have antioxidant and prebiotic properties. The physico-chemical properties of microbial polysaccharide-based films, including tensile strength and elongation at break, are also evaluated. These materials' potential as multifunctional packaging solutions in the food industry is demonstrated. In addition, their possible use in medicine as a drug delivery system is also considered.

Electrospun Polymeric Nanofibers: Current Trends in Synthesis, Surface Modification, and Biomedical Applications

Electrospun polymeric nanofibers are essential in various fields for various applications because of their unique properties. Their features are similar to extracellular matrices, which suggests them for applications in healthcare fields, such as antimicrobials, tissue engineering, drug delivery, wound healing, bone regeneration, and biosensors. This review focuses on the synthesis of electrospun polymeric nanofibers, their surface modification, and their biomedical applications. Nanofibers can be fabricated from both natural and synthetic polymers and their composites. Even though they mimic extracellular matrices, their surface features (physicochemical characteristics) are not always capable of fulfilling the purpose of the target application. Therefore, they need to be improved via surface modification techniques. Both needle-based and needleless electrospinning are thoroughly discussed. Various techniques and setups employed in each method are also reviewed. Furthermore, pre- and postspinning modification approaches for electrospun nanofibers, including instrument design and the modification features for targeted biomedical applications, are also extensively discussed. In this way, the remarkable potential of electrospun polymeric nanofibers can be highlighted to reveal future research directions in this dynamic field.

Development of Hybrid Electrospun Nanofibers: Improving Effects of Cellulose Nanofibers (CNFs) on Electrospinnability of Gelatin

Cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) were used to improve the electrospinnability of the gelatin protein in a water/ethanol/acetic acid (3:2:3, v/v) solution. The effects of different concentrations of CNFs (0.5-4%) on the important physical properties of the gelatin solution (15%), including rheology, conductivity, and surface tension, were investigated. The apparent viscosity and shear-thinning behavior were increased by increasing the CNF concentration from 0 to 4% at a low shear rate (<10 s-1). CNFs also increased the electrical conductivity and surface tension of the gelatin solution. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images revealed uniformly ordered structures with good continuity without fracture or bead formation in all hybrid nanofibers. They also showed that the average diameters of fibers decreased from 216 nm in the pure gelatin nanofibers to 175.39 nm in the hybrid gelatin/CNF (4%) ones. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results showed that CNFs increased Tg, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis showed that the electrospinning process caused the formation of more amorphous structures in the gelatin/CNF hybrid nanofibers. The tensile test indicated that by adding 2% CNFs, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and strain at break (SB) of nanofiber mats increased from 4.26 to 10.5 MPa and 3.3% to 6.25%, respectively. The current study indicated that incorporating CNFs at the optimal concentration into a gelatin solution can improve the resulting hybrid nanofibers' morphology, average diameter, and mechanical properties.

Exploring Electrospun Scaffold Innovations in Cardiovascular Therapy: A Review of Electrospinning in Cardiovascular Disease

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of mortality worldwide. In particular, patients who suffer from ischemic heart disease (IHD) that is not amenable to surgical or percutaneous revascularization techniques have limited treatment options. Furthermore, after revascularization is successfully implemented, there are a number of pathophysiological changes to the myocardium, including but not limited to ischemia-reperfusion injury, necrosis, altered inflammation, tissue remodeling, and dyskinetic wall motion. Electrospinning, a nanofiber scaffold fabrication technique, has recently emerged as an attractive option as a potential therapeutic platform for the treatment of cardiovascular disease. Electrospun scaffolds made of biocompatible materials have the ability to mimic the native extracellular matrix and are compatible with drug delivery. These inherent properties, combined with ease of customization and a low cost of production, have made electrospun scaffolds an active area of research for the treatment of cardiovascular disease. In this review, we aim to discuss the current state of electrospinning from the fundamentals of scaffold creation to the current role of electrospun materials as both bioengineered extracellular matrices and drug delivery vehicles in the treatment of CVD, with a special emphasis on the potential clinical applications in myocardial ischemia.

Recent progress and treatment strategy of pectin polysaccharide based tissue engineering scaffolds in cancer therapy, wound healing and cartilage regeneration

Natural polymers and its mixtures in the form of films, sponges and hydrogels are playing a major role in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Hydrogels have been extensively investigated as standalone materials for drug delivery purposes as they enable effective encapsulation and sustained release of drugs. Biopolymers are widely utilised in the fabrication of hydrogels due to their safety, biocompatibility, low toxicity, and regulated breakdown by human enzymes. Among all the biopolymers, polysaccharide-based polymer is well suited to overcome the limitations of traditional wound dressing materials. Pectin is a polysaccharide which can be extracted from different plant sources and is used in various pharmaceutical and biomedical applications including cartilage regeneration. Pectin itself cannot be employed as scaffolds for tissue engineering since it decomposes quickly. This article discusses recent research and developments on pectin polysaccharide, including its types, origins, applications, and potential demands for use in AI-mediated scaffolds. It also covers the materials-design process, strategy for implementation to material selection and fabrication methods for evaluation. Finally, we discuss unmet requirements and current obstacles in the development of optimal materials for wound healing and bone-tissue regeneration, as well as emerging strategies in the field.

Current issues and potential solutions for the electrospinning of major polysaccharides and proteins: A review

Biopolymers, especially polysaccharides and proteins, are the promising green replacement for petroleum based polymers. Due to their innate properties, they are effectively used in biomedical applications, especially tissue engineering, wound healing, and drug delivery. The fibrous morphology of biopolymers is essentially required for the effectiveness in these biomedical applications. Electrospinning (ES) is the most advanced and robust method to fabricate nanofibers (NFs) and provides a complete solution to the conventional methods issues. However, the major issues regarding fabricating polysaccharides and protein nanofibers using ES include poor electrospinnability, lack of desired fundamental properties for a specific application by a single biopolymer, and insolubility among common solvents. The current review provides the main strategies for effective electrospinning of the major biopolymers. The key strategies include blending major biopolymers with suitable biopolymers and optimizing the solvent system. A systematic literature review was done to provide the optimized solvent system of the major biopolymers along with their best possible biopolymeric blend for ES. The review also highlights the fundamental issues with the commercialization of ES based biomedical products and provides future directions to improve the fabrication of biopolymeric nanofibers.

Electrospun Nanofibers: Shaping the Future of Controlled and Responsive Drug Delivery

Electrospun nanofibers for drug delivery systems (DDS) introduce a revolutionary means of administering pharmaceuticals, holding promise for both improved drug efficacy and reduced side effects. These biopolymer nanofiber membranes, distinguished by their high surface area-to-volume ratio, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, are ideally suited for pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. One of their standout attributes is the capability to offer the controlled release of the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API), allowing custom-tailored release profiles to address specific diseases and administration routes. Moreover, stimuli-responsive electrospun DDS can adapt to conditions at the drug target, enhancing the precision and selectivity of drug delivery. Such localized API delivery paves the way for superior therapeutic efficiency while diminishing the risk of side effects and systemic toxicity. Electrospun nanofibers can foster better patient compliance and enhanced clinical outcomes by amplifying the therapeutic efficiency of routinely prescribed medications. This review delves into the design principles and techniques central to achieving controlled API release using electrospun membranes. The advanced drug release mechanisms of electrospun DDS highlighted in this review illustrate their versatility and potential to improve the efficacy of medical treatments.

Suitability of Mycelium-Reinforced Nanofiber Mats for Filtration of Different Dyes

Electrospun nanofiber mats have a high specific surface area and very small pores which can be tailored by the spinning process. They are thus highly suitable as filters for small particles and molecules, such as organic dyes. On the other hand, they are usually very thin and thus have low mechanical properties. As a potential reinforcement, mycelium of Pleurotus ostreatus was grown on poly(acrylonitrile) nanofiber mats and thermally solidified after fully covering the nanofiber mats. This study investigates whether the filtration efficiency of the nanofiber mats is altered by the mycelium growing through it and whether the mechanical properties of the nanofibrous filters can be improved in this way. The study shows fast and reliable growth of the mycelium on the nanofiber mats and high filtration efficiency for astra blue and chlorophyll, while indigo carmine showed only very low filtration efficiency of up to 20%. For chlorophyll and safranin, membranes with mycelium showed higher filtration than pure nanofiber mats. In diffusion cell tests, especially astra blue was strongly adsorbed on the membranes with mycelium.

Mesenchymal Stem Cells Combined with a P(VDF-TrFE)/BaTiO3 Scaffold and Photobiomodulation Therapy Enhance Bone Repair in Rat Calvarial Defects

BACKGROUND

Tissue engineering and cell therapy have been the focus of investigations on how to treat challenging bone defects. This study aimed to produce and characterize a P(VDF-TrFE)/BaTiO₃ scaffold and evaluate the effect of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) combined with this scaffold and photobiomodulation (PBM) on bone repair.

METHODS AND RESULTS

P(VDF-TrFE)/BaTiO₃ was synthesized using an electrospinning technique and presented physical and chemical properties suitable for bone tissue engineering. This scaffold was implanted in rat calvarial defects (unilateral, 5 mm in diameter) and, 2 weeks post-implantation, MSCs were locally injected into these defects (n = 12/group). Photobiomodulation was then applied immediately, and again 48 and 96 h post-injection. The μCT and histological analyses showed an increment in bone formation, which exhibited a positive correlation with the treatments combined with the scaffold, with MSCs and PBM inducing more bone repair, followed by the scaffold combined with PBM, the scaffold combined with MSCs, and finally the scaffold alone (ANOVA, p ≤ 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The P(VDF-TrFE)/BaTiO₃ scaffold acted synergistically with MSCs and PBM to induce bone repair in rat calvarial defects. These findings emphasize the need to combine a range of techniques to regenerate large bone defects and provide avenues for further investigations on innovative tissue engineering approaches.

Biological and Oxidative Degradation of Ultrathin-Fibrous Nonwovens Based on Poly(lactic Acid)/Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate) Blends

Developing biodegradable materials based on polymer blends with a programmable self-destruction period in the environmental conditions of living systems is a promising direction in polymer chemistry. In this work, novel non-woven fibrous materials obtained by electrospinning based on the blends of poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) were developed. The kinetics of biodegradation was studied in the aquatic environment of the inoculum of soil microorganisms. Oxidative degradation was studied under the ozone gaseous medium. The changes in chemical composition and structure of the materials were studied by optical microscopy, DSC, TGA, and FTIR-spectroscopy. The disappearance of the structural bands of PHB in the IR-spectra of the blends and a significant decrease in the enthalpy of melting after 90 days of exposure in the inoculum indicated the biodegradation of PHB while PLA remained stable. It was shown that the rate of ozonation was higher for PLA and the blends with a high content of PLA. The lower density of the amorphous regions of the blends determined an increased rate of their oxidation by ozone compared to homopolymers. The optimal composition in terms of degradation kinetics is a fibrous material based on the blend of 30PLA/70PHB that can be used as an effective ecosorbent, for biopackaging, and as a highly porous covering material for agricultural purposes.

Optical Properties of Electrospun Nanofiber Mats

Electrospun nanofiber mats are usually applied in fields where their high specific surface area and small pore sizes are important, such as biotechnology or filtration. Optically, they are mostly white due to scattering from the irregularly distributed, thin nanofibers. Nevertheless, their optical properties can be modified and become highly important for different applications, e.g., in sensing devices or solar cells, and sometimes for investigating their electronic or mechanical properties. This review gives an overview of typical optical properties of electrospun nanofiber mats, such as absorption and transmission, fluorescence and phosphorescence, scattering, polarized emission, dyeing and bathochromic shift as well as the correlation with dielectric constants and the extinction coefficient, showing which effects may occur and can be measured by which instruments or used for different applications.

Properties of galactomannans and their textile-related applications-A concise review

Galactomannans are reserve carbohydrates in legume plants and are primarily extracted from their seeds. They contain galactose side chains throughout the mannose backbone and have unique features such as emulsifying, thickening, and gelling together with biodegradability, biocompatibility, and non-toxicity, which make them an appealing material. Guar gum and locust bean gum mainly are used in all galactomannan needed applications. Nonetheless, tara gum and fenugreek gum have also attracted considerable attention in recent decades. Despite the increased usage of galactomannans in the textile-related fields in recent years, there is no review article published yet. To fill this gap and to demonstrate the striking and increasing importance of galactomannans, a concise summary of the properties of common galactomannans and their comparisons is given first, followed by an account of recent developments and applications of galactomannans in the textile-related fields. The associated potential opportunities are also provided at the end of this review.

Electrospun hybrid nanofibers: Fabrication, characterization, and biomedical applications

Nanotechnology is one of the most promising technologies available today, holding tremendous potential for biomedical and healthcare applications. In this field, there is an increasing interest in the use of polymeric micro/nanofibers for the construction of biomedical structures. Due to its potential applications in various fields like pharmaceutics and biomedicine, the electrospinning process has gained considerable attention for producing nano-sized fibers. Electrospun nanofiber membranes have been used in drug delivery, controlled drug release, regenerative medicine, tissue engineering, biosensing, stent coating, implants, cosmetics, facial masks, and theranostics. Various natural and synthetic polymers have been successfully electrospun into ultrafine fibers. Although biopolymers demonstrate exciting properties such as good biocompatibility, non-toxicity, and biodegradability, they possess poor mechanical properties. Hybrid nanofibers from bio and synthetic nanofibers combine the characteristics of biopolymers with those of synthetic polymers, such as high mechanical strength and stability. In addition, a variety of functional agents, such as nanoparticles and biomolecules, can be incorporated into nanofibers to create multifunctional hybrid nanofibers. Due to the remarkable properties of hybrid nanofibers, the latest research on the unique properties of hybrid nanofibers is highlighted in this study. Moreover, various established hybrid nanofiber fabrication techniques, especially the electrospinning-based methods, as well as emerging strategies for the characterization of hybrid nanofibers, are summarized. Finally, the development and application of electrospun hybrid nanofibers in biomedical applications are discussed.

Encapsulation of Caffeic Acid in Carob Bean Flour and Whey Protein-Based Nanofibers via Electrospinning

The purpose of this study was to introduce caffeic acid (CA) into electrospun nanofibers made of carob flour, whey protein concentrate (WPC), and polyethylene oxide (PEO). The effects of WPC concentration (1% and 3%) and CA additions (1% and 10%) on the characteristics of solutions and nanofibers were investigated. The viscosity and electrical conductivity of the solutions were examined to determine characteristics of solutions. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), water vapor permeability (WVP), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis were used to characterize the nanofibers. According to the SEM results, the inclusion of CA into nanofibers resulted in thinner nanofibers. All nanofibers exhibited uniform morphology. CA was efficiently loaded into nanofibers. When CA concentrations were 1% and 10%, loading efficiencies were 76.4% and 94%, respectively. Nanofibers containing 10% CA demonstrated 92.95% antioxidant activity. The results indicate that encapsulating CA into carob flour–WPC-based nanofibers via electrospinning is a suitable method for active packaging applications.

Electromagnetic Interference Shielding with Electrospun Nanofiber Mats—A Review of Production, Physical Properties and Performance

With a steadily increasing number of machines and devices producing electromagnetic radiation, especially, sensitive instruments as well as humans need to be shielded from electromagnetic interference (EMI). Since ideal shielding materials should be lightweight, flexible, drapable, thin and inexpensive, textile fabrics belong to the often-investigated candidates to meet these expectations. Especially, electrospun nanofiber mats are of significant interest since they can not only be produced relatively easily and cost efficiently, but they also enable the embedding of functional nanoparticles in addition to thermal or chemical post-treatments to reach the desired physical properties. This paper gives an overview of recent advances in nanofiber mats for EMI shielding, discussing their production, physical properties and typical characterization techniques.

Biomimetic biphasic curdlan-based scaffold for osteochondral tissue engineering applications - Characterization and preliminary evaluation of mesenchymal stem cell response in vitro

Osteochondral defects remain a huge problem in medicine today. Biomimetic bi- or multi-phasic scaffolds constitute a very promising alternative to osteochondral autografts and allografts. In this study, a new curdlan-based scaffold was designed for osteochondral tissue engineering applications. To achieve biomimetic properties, it was enriched with a protein component - whey protein isolate as well as a ceramic ingredient - hydroxyapatite granules. The scaffold was fabricated via a simple and cost-efficient method, which represents a significant advantage. Importantly, this technique allowed generation of a scaffold with two distinct, but integrated phases. Scanning electron microcopy and optical profilometry observations demonstrated that phases of biomaterial possessed different structural properties. The top layer of the biomaterial (mimicking the cartilage) was smoother than the bottom one (mimicking the subchondral bone), which is beneficial from a biological point of view because unlike bone, cartilage is a smooth tissue. Moreover, mechanical testing showed that the top layer of the biomaterial had mechanical properties close to those of natural cartilage. Although the mechanical properties of the bottom layer of scaffold were lower than those of the subchondral bone, it was still higher than in many analogous systems. Most importantly, cell culture experiments indicated that the biomaterial possessed high cytocompatibility towards adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells and bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells in vitro. Both phases of the scaffold enhanced cell adhesion, proliferation, and chondrogenic differentiation of stem cells (revealing its chondroinductive properties in vitro) as well as osteogenic differentiation of these cells (revealing its osteoinductive properties in vitro). Given all features of the novel curdlan-based scaffold, it is worth noting that it may be considered as promising candidate for osteochondral tissue engineering applications.

Investigation of the Morphological Structure of Needle-Free Electrospun Magnetic Nanofiber Mats

Electrospun magnetic nanofibers are promising for a variety of applications in biomedicine, energy storage, filtration or spintronics. The surface morphology of nanofiber mats plays an important role for defined application areas. In addition, the distribution of magnetic particles in nanofibers exerts an influence on the final properties of nanofiber mats. A simple method for the production of magnetic nanofiber mats by the addition of magnetic nanoparticles in an electrospinning polymer solution was used in this study. In this work, magnetic nanofibers (MNFs) were prepared by needle-free electrospinning technique from poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN) in the low-toxic solvent dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) and 20 wt% Fe3O4 at different parameter conditions such as PAN concentration, voltage and ultrasonic bath. The distribution of nanoparticles in the fiber matrix was investigated as well as the chemical and morphological properties of the resulting magnetic nanofibers. In addition, the surface morphology of magnetic nanofiber mats was studied by confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), Fourier transform infrared microscope (FTIR) and ImageJ software, and distribution of Fe3O4 particles in the matrix was investigated by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX).

Wool Keratin-Based Nanofibres-In Vitro Validation

Protein-based nanofibres are commonly used in the biomedical field to support cell growth. For this study, the cell viability of wool keratin-based nanofibres was tested. Membranes were obtained by electrospinning using formic acid, hexafluoroisopropanol, and water as solvents. For aqueous solutions, polyethylene oxide blended with keratin was employed, and their use to support in vitro cell interactions was also validated. Morphological characterization and secondary structure quantification were carried out by SEM and FTIR analyses. Although formic acid produced the best nanofibres from a morphological point of view, the results showed a better response to cell proliferation after 14 days in the case of fibres from hexafluoroisopropanol solution. Polyethylene oxide in keratin nanofibres was demonstrated, over time, to influence in vitro cell interactions, modifying membranes-wettability and reducing the contact between keratin chains and water molecules, respectively.