The Immune System as a Therapeutic Target for Alzheimer’s Disease

Novel Therapeutic Strategies in Alzheimer's Disease: Pitfalls and Challenges of Anti-Amyloid Therapies and Beyond

Alzheimer's disease (AD) causes a significant challenge to global healthcare systems, with limited effective treatments available. This review examines the landscape of novel therapeutic strategies for AD, focusing on the shortcomings of traditional therapies against amyloid-beta (Aβ) and exploring emerging alternatives. Despite decades of research emphasizing the role of Aβ accumulation in AD pathogenesis, clinical trials targeting Aβ have obtained disappointing results, highlighting the complexity of AD pathophysiology and the need for investigating other therapeutic approaches. In this manuscript, we first discuss the challenges associated with anti-Aβ therapies, including limited efficacy and potential adverse effects, underscoring the necessity of exploring alternative mechanisms and targets. Thereafter, we review promising non-Aβ-based strategies, such as tau-targeted therapies, neuroinflammation modulation, and gene and stem cell therapy. These approaches offer new avenues for AD treatment by addressing additional pathological hallmarks and downstream effects beyond Aβ deposition.

Kallikrein-related peptidase's significance in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis: A comprehensive survey

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and related dementias constitute an important global health challenge. Detailed understanding of the multiple molecular mechanisms underlying their pathogenesis constitutes a clue for the management of the disease. Kallikrein-related peptidases (KLKs), a lead family of serine proteases, have emerged as potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets in the context of AD and associated cognitive decline. Hence, KLKs were proposed to display multifaceted impacts influencing various aspects of neurodegeneration, including amyloid-beta aggregation, tau pathology, neuroinflammation, and synaptic dysfunction. We propose here a comprehensive survey to summarize recent findings, providing an overview of the main kallikreins implicated in AD pathophysiology namely KLK8, KLK6 and KLK7. We explore the interplay between KLKs and key AD molecular pathways, shedding light on their significance as potential biomarkers for early disease detection. We also discuss their pertinence as therapeutic targets for disease-modifying interventions to develop innovative therapeutic strategies aimed at halting or ameliorating the progression of AD and associated dementias.

Using blood transcriptome analysis for Alzheimer's disease diagnosis and patient stratification

INTRODUCTION

Blood protein biomarkers demonstrate potential for Alzheimer's disease (AD) diagnosis. Limited studies examine the molecular changes in AD blood cells.

METHODS

Bulk RNA-sequencing of blood cells was performed on AD patients of Chinese descent (n = 214 and 26 in the discovery and validation cohorts, respectively) with normal controls (n = 208 and 38 in the discovery and validation cohorts, respectively). Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) and deconvolution analysis identified AD-associated gene modules and blood cell types. Regression and unsupervised clustering analysis identified AD-associated genes, gene modules, cell types, and established AD classification models.

RESULTS

WGCNA on differentially expressed genes revealed 15 gene modules, with 6 accurately classifying AD (areas under the receiver operating characteristics curve [auROCs] > 0.90). These modules stratified AD patients into subgroups with distinct disease states. Cell-type deconvolution analysis identified specific blood cell types potentially associated with AD pathogenesis.

DISCUSSION

This study highlights the potential of blood transcriptome for AD diagnosis, patient stratification, and mechanistic studies.

HIGHLIGHTS

We comprehensively analyze the blood transcriptomes of a well-characterized Alzheimer's disease cohort to identify genes, gene modules, pathways, and specific blood cells associated with the disease. Blood transcriptome analysis accurately classifies and stratifies patients with Alzheimer's disease, with some gene modules achieving classification accuracy comparable to that of the plasma ATN biomarkers. Immune-associated pathways and immune cells, such as neutrophils, have potential roles in the pathogenesis and progression of Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's Disease Puzzle: Delving into Pathogenesis Hypotheses

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a prevalent neurodegenerative disease characterized by both amnestic and non-amnestic clinical manifestations. It accounts for approximately 60-70% of all dementia cases worldwide. With the increasing number of AD patients, elucidating underlying mechanisms and developing corresponding interventional strategies are necessary. Hypotheses about AD such as amyloid cascade, Tau hyper-phosphorylation, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, cholinergic, and vascular hypotheses are not mutually exclusive, and all of them play a certain role in the development of AD. The amyloid cascade hypothesis is currently the most widely studied; however, other hypotheses are also gaining support. This article summarizes the recent evidence regarding major pathological hypotheses of AD and their potential interplay, as well as the strengths and weaknesses of each hypothesis and their implications for the development of effective treatments. This could stimulate further studies and promote the development of more effective therapeutic strategies for AD.

Modeling the neuroimmune system in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases

Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) are neurodegenerative disorders caused by the interaction of genetic, environmental, and familial factors. These diseases have distinct pathologies and symptoms that are linked to specific cell populations in the brain. Notably, the immune system has been implicated in both diseases, with a particular focus on the dysfunction of microglia, the brain's resident immune cells, contributing to neuronal loss and exacerbating symptoms. Researchers use models of the neuroimmune system to gain a deeper understanding of the physiological and biological aspects of these neurodegenerative diseases and how they progress. Several in vitro and in vivo models, including 2D cultures and animal models, have been utilized. Recently, advancements have been made in optimizing these existing models and developing 3D models and organ-on-a-chip systems, holding tremendous promise in accurately mimicking the intricate intracellular environment. As a result, these models represent a crucial breakthrough in the transformation of current treatments for PD and AD by offering potential for conducting long-term disease-based modeling for therapeutic testing, reducing reliance on animal models, and significantly improving cell viability compared to conventional 2D models. The application of 3D and organ-on-a-chip models in neurodegenerative disease research marks a prosperous step forward, providing a more realistic representation of the complex interactions within the neuroimmune system. Ultimately, these refined models of the neuroimmune system aim to aid in the quest to combat and mitigate the impact of debilitating neuroimmune diseases on patients and their families.

Navigating the Alzheimer's Treatment Landscape: Unraveling Amyloid-beta Complexities and Pioneering Precision Medicine Approaches

A variety of cutting-edge methods and good knowledge of the illness's complex causes are causing a sea change in the field of Alzheimer's Disease (A.D.) research and treatment. Precision medicine is at the vanguard of this change, where individualized treatment plans based on genetic and biomarker profiles give a ray of hope for customized therapeutics. Combination therapies are becoming increasingly popular as a way to address the multifaceted pathology of Alzheimer's by simultaneously attacking Aβ plaques, tau tangles, neuroinflammation, and other factors. The article covers several therapeutic design efforts, including BACE inhibitors, gamma- secretase modulators, monoclonal antibodies (e.g., Aducanumab and Lecanemab), and anti- Aβ vaccinations. While these techniques appear promising, clinical development faces safety concerns and uneven efficacy. To address the complicated Aβ pathology in Alzheimer's disease, a multimodal approach is necessary. The statement emphasizes the continued importance of clinical trials in addressing safety and efficacy concerns. Looking ahead, it suggests that future treatments may take into account genetic and biomarker traits in order to provide more personalized care. Therapies targeting Aβ, tau tangles, neuroinflammation, and novel drug delivery modalities are planned. Nanoparticles and gene therapies are only two examples of novel drug delivery methods that have the potential to deliver treatments more effectively, with fewer side effects, and with better therapeutic results. In addition, medicines that target tau proteins in addition to Aβ are in the works. Early intervention, based on precise biomarkers, is a linchpin of Alzheimer's care, emphasizing the critical need for detecting the disease at its earliest stages. Lifestyle interventions, encompassing diet, exercise, cognitive training, and social engagement, are emerging as key components in the fight against cognitive decline. Data analytics and art are gaining prominence as strategies to mitigate the brain's inflammatory responses. To pool knowledge and resources in the fight against Alzheimer's, international cooperation between scientists, doctors, and pharmaceutical companies is still essential. In essence, a complex, individualized, and collaborative strategy will characterize Alzheimer's research and therapy in the future. Despite obstacles, these encouraging possibilities show the ongoing commitment of the scientific and medical communities to combat A.D. head-on, providing a glimmer of hope to the countless people and families touched by this savage sickness.

Bone Marrow-Derived GCA+ Immune Cells Drive Alzheimer's Disease Progression

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related degenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS), whereas the role of bone marrow immune cells in the pathogenesis of AD remains unclear. Here, the study reveals that compared to matched healthy individuals, AD patients have higher circulating grancalcin (GCA) levels, which negatively correlate with cognitive function. Bone marrow-derived GCA+ immune cells, which secret abundant GCA and increase during aging, preferentially invaded the hippocampus and cortex of AD mouse model in a C-C Motif Chemokine Receptor 10 (CCR10)-dependent manner. Transplanting GCA+ immune cells or direct stereotaxic injection of recombinant GCA protein intensified amyloid plaque load and aggravated cognitive and memory impairments. In contrast, genetic ablation of GCA in the hematopoietic compartment improves cognitive and memory function. Mechanistically, GCA competitively binds to the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 (LRP1) in microglia, thus inhibiting phagocytosis and clearance of Aβ and potentiating neuropathological changes. Importantly, GCA-neutralizing antibody treatment rejuvenated cognitive and memory function and constrained AD progression. Together, the study demonstrates a pathological role of GCA+ immune cells instigating cognitive and memory decline, suggesting that GCA+ immune cells can be a potential target for innovative therapeutic strategies in AD.

Membrane-Active Peptides and Their Potential Biomedical Application

Membrane-active peptides (MAPs) possess unique properties that make them valuable tools for studying membrane structure and function and promising candidates for therapeutic applications. This review paper provides an overview of the fundamental aspects of MAPs, focusing on their membrane interaction mechanisms and potential applications. MAPs exhibit various structural features, including amphipathic structures and specific amino acid residues, enabling selective interaction with multiple membranes. Their mechanisms of action involve disrupting lipid bilayers through different pathways, depending on peptide properties and membrane composition. The therapeutic potential of MAPs is significant. They have demonstrated antimicrobial activity against bacteria and fungi, making them promising alternatives to conventional antibiotics. MAPs can selectively target cancer cells and induce apoptosis, opening new avenues in cancer therapeutics. Additionally, MAPs serve as drug delivery vectors, facilitating the transport of therapeutic cargoes across cell membranes. They represent a fascinating class of biomolecules with significant potential in basic research and clinical applications. Understanding their mechanisms of action and designing peptides with enhanced selectivity and efficacy will further expand their utility in diverse fields. Exploring MAPs holds promise for developing novel therapeutic strategies against infections, cancer, and drug delivery challenges.

Intersectionality in Alzheimer's Disease: The Role of Female Sex and Black American Race in the Development and Prevalence of Alzheimer's Disease

It is well known that vascular factors and specific social determinants of health contribute to dementia risk and that the prevalence of these risk factors differs according to race and sex. In this review, we discuss the intersection of sex and race, particularly female sex and Black American race. Women, particularly Black women, have been underrepresented in Alzheimer's disease clinical trials and research. However, in recent years, the number of women participating in clinical research has steadily increased. A greater prevalence of vascular risk factors such as hypertension and type 2 diabetes, coupled with unique social and environmental pressures, puts Black American women particularly at risk for the development of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias. Female sex hormones and the use of hormonal birth control may offer some protective benefits, but results are mixed, and studies do not consistently report the demographics of their samples. We argue that as a research community, greater efforts should be made to not only recruit this vulnerable population, but also report the demographic makeup of samples in research to better target those at greatest risk for the disease.

Application of Novel Degraders Employing Autophagy for Expediting Medicinal Research

Targeted protein degradation (TPD) technology is based on a unique pharmacological mechanism that has profoundly revolutionized medicinal research by overcoming limitations associated with traditional small-molecule drugs. Autophagy, a mechanism for intracellular waste disposal and recovery, is an important biological process in medicinal research. Recently, studies have demonstrated that several emerging autophagic degraders can treat human diseases. Herein we summarize the progress in medicinal research on autophagic degraders, including autophagosome-tethering compounds (ATTEC), autophagy-targeting chimeras (AUTAC), and AUTOphagy-TArgeting chimeras (AUTOTAC), for treating human diseases. These autophagic degraders exhibit excellent potential for treating neurodegenerative diseases. Our research on autophagic degraders provides a new avenue for medicinal research on TPD via autophagy.