Advances in 3D Printing for Tissue Engineering

Thermosensitive composite based on agarose and chitosan saturated with carbon dioxide. Preliminary study of requirements for production of new CSAG bioink

This study introduces a method for producing printable, thermosensitive bioink formulated from agarose (AG) and carbon dioxide-saturated chitosan (CS) hydrogels. The research identified medium molecular weight chitosan as optimal for bioink production, with a preferred chitosan hydrogel content of 40-60 %. Rheological analysis reveals the bioink's pseudoplastic behavior and a sol-gel phase transition between 27.0 and 31.5 °C. The MMW chitosan-based bioink showed also the most stable extrusion characteristic. The choice of chitosan for the production of bioink was also based on the assessment of the antimicrobial activity of the polymer as a function of its molecular weight and the degree of deacetylation, noting significant cell reduction rates for E. coli and S. aureus of 1.72 and 0.54 for optimal bioink composition, respectively. Cytotoxicity assessments via MTT and LDH tests confirm the bioink's safety for L929, HaCaT, and 46BR.1 N cell lines. Additionally, XTT proliferation assay proved the stimulating effect of the bioink on the proliferation of 46BR.1 N fibroblasts, comparable to that observed with Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS). FTIR spectroscopy confirms the bioink as a physical polymer blend. In conclusion, the CS/AG bioink demonstrates the promising potential for advanced spatial cell cultures in tissue engineering applications including skin regeneration.

Scaffold-Mediated Drug Delivery for Enhanced Wound Healing: A Review

Wound healing is a complex physiological process involving coordinated cellular and molecular events aimed at restoring tissue integrity. Acute wounds typically progress through the sequential phases of hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling, while chronic wounds, such as venous leg ulcers and diabetic foot ulcers, often exhibit prolonged inflammation and impaired healing. Traditional wound dressings, while widely used, have limitations such poor moisture retention and biocompatibility. To address these challenges and improve patient outcomes, scaffold-mediated delivery systems have emerged as innovative approaches. They offer advantages in creating a conducive environment for wound healing by facilitating controlled and localized drug delivery. The manuscript explores scaffold-mediated delivery systems for wound healing applications, detailing the use of natural and synthetic polymers in scaffold fabrication. Additionally, various fabrication techniques are discussed for their potential in creating scaffolds with controlled drug release kinetics. Through a synthesis of experimental findings and current literature, this manuscript elucidates the promising potential of scaffold-mediated drug delivery in improving therapeutic outcomes and advancing wound care practices.

3D Printing of Polysaccharide-Based Hydrogel Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering Applications: A Review

In tissue engineering, 3D printing represents a versatile technology employing inks to construct three-dimensional living structures, mimicking natural biological systems. This technology efficiently translates digital blueprints into highly reproducible 3D objects. Recent advances have expanded 3D printing applications, allowing for the fabrication of diverse anatomical components, including engineered functional tissues and organs. The development of printable inks, which incorporate macromolecules, enzymes, cells, and growth factors, is advancing with the aim of restoring damaged tissues and organs. Polysaccharides, recognized for their intrinsic resemblance to components of the extracellular matrix have garnered significant attention in the field of tissue engineering. This review explores diverse 3D printing techniques, outlining distinctive features that should characterize scaffolds used as ideal matrices in tissue engineering. A detailed investigation into the properties and roles of polysaccharides in tissue engineering is highlighted. The review also culminates in a profound exploration of 3D polysaccharide-based hydrogel applications, focusing on recent breakthroughs in regenerating different tissues such as skin, bone, cartilage, heart, nerve, vasculature, and skeletal muscle. It further addresses challenges and prospective directions in 3D printing hydrogels based on polysaccharides, paving the way for innovative research to fabricate functional tissues, enhancing patient care, and improving quality of life.

3D printing of Rg3-loaded hydrogel scaffolds: anti-inflammatory and scar-formation related collagen inhibitory effects for scar-free wound healing

During the process of wound healing, the stimulation of inflammatory factors often leads to abnormal proliferation of blood vessels and collagen, ultimately resulting in scar formation. To address this challenge, we fabricate a novel dermal extracellular matrix (DECM) hydrogel scaffold loaded with ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) using 3D printing technology. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) are introduced into the system to encase the Rg3 to control its release rate and enhance its bioavailability. We systematically evaluate the biological, physicochemical, and wound healing properties of this scaffold. In vitro studies demonstrate that the hydrogel exhibits excellent biocompatibility and solid-like rheological properties, ensuring its successful printing. In vivo studies reveal that the composite hydrogel scaffolds effectively accelerate wound healing and achieve scar-free wound healing within three weeks. Histological and immunohistochemical (IHC) analyses show that the composite hydrogel scaffolds reduce the inflammatory response and inhibit excessive collagen accumulation. These combined effects underscore the potential of our approach in effectively inhibiting scar formation.

Evaluating osteogenic potential of a 3D-printed bioceramic-based scaffold for critical-sized defect treatment: an in vivo and in vitro investigation

The integration of precision medicine principles into bone tissue engineering has ignited a wave of research focused on customizing intricate scaffolds through advanced 3D printing techniques. Bioceramics, known for their exceptional biocompatibility and osteoconductivity, have emerged as a promising material in this field. This article aims to evaluate the regenerative capabilities of a composite scaffold composed of 3D-printed gelatin combined with hydroxyapatite/tricalcium phosphate bioceramics (G/HA/TCP), incorporating human dental pulp-derived stem cells (hDPSCs). Using 3D powder printing, we created cross-shaped biphasic calcium phosphate scaffolds with a gelatin layer. The bone-regenerating potential of these scaffolds, along with hDPSCs, was assessed through in vitro analyses and in vivo studies with 60 rats and critical-sized calvarial defects. The assessment included analyzing cellular proliferation, differentiation, and alkaline phosphatase activity (ALP), and concluded with a detailed histological evaluation of bone regeneration. Our study revealed a highly favorable scenario, displaying not only desirable cellular attachment and proliferation on the scaffolds but also a notable enhancement in the ALP activity of hDPSCs, underscoring their pivotal role in bone regeneration. However, the histological examination of calvarial defects at the 12-wk mark yielded a rather modest level of bone regeneration across all experimental groups. The test and cell group exhibited significant bone formation compared to all other groups except the control and cell group. This underscores the complexity of the regenerative process and paves the way for further in-depth investigations aimed at improving the potential of the composite scaffolds.

3D printing technology and its combination with nanotechnology in bone tissue engineering

With the graying of the world's population, the morbidity of age-related chronic degenerative bone diseases, such as osteoporosis and osteoarthritis, is increasing yearly, leading to an increased risk of bone defects, while current treatment methods face many problems, such as shortage of grafts and an incomplete repair. Therefore, bone tissue engineering offers an alternative solution for regenerating and repairing bone tissues by constructing bioactive scaffolds with porous structures that provide mechanical support to damaged bone tissue while promoting angiogenesis and cell adhesion, proliferation, and activity. 3D printing technology has become the primary scaffold manufacturing method due to its ability to precisely control the internal pore structure and complex spatial shape of bone scaffolds. In contrast, the fast development of nanotechnology has provided more possibilities for the internal structure and biological function of scaffolds. This review focuses on the application of 3D printing technology in bone tissue engineering and nanotechnology in the field of bone tissue regeneration and repair, and explores the prospects for the integration of the two technologies.

On-Demand Bioactivation of Inert Materials With Plasma-Polymerized Nanoparticles

Conventional gas plasma treatments are crucial for functionalizing materials in biomedical applications, but have limitations hindering their broader use. These methods require exposure to reactive media under vacuum conditions, rendering them unsuitable for substrates that demand aqueous environments, such as proteins and hydrogels. In addition, complex geometries are difficult to treat, necessitating extensive customization for each material and shape. To address these constraints, an innovative approach employing plasma polymer nanoparticles (PPN) as a versatile functionalization tool is proposed. PPN share similarities with traditional plasma polymer coatings (PPC) but offer unique advantages: compatibility with aqueous systems, the ability to modify complex geometries, and availability as off-the-shelf products. Robust immobilization of PPN on various substrates, including synthetic polymers, proteins, and complex hydrogel structures is demonstrated in this study. This results in substantial improvements in surface hydrophilicity. Materials functionalization with arginylglycylaspartic acid (RGD)-loaded PPN significantly enhances cell attachment, spreading, and substrate coverage on inert scaffolds compared to passive RGD coatings. Improved adhesion to complex geometries and subsequent differentiation following growth factor exposure is also demonstrated. This research introduces a novel substrate functionalization approach that mimics the outcomes of plasma coating technology but vastly expands its applicability, promising advancements in biomedical materials and devices.

An overview of the production of tissue extracellular matrix and decellularization process

Thousands of patients need an organ transplant yearly, while only a tiny percentage have this chance to receive a tissue/organ transplant. Nowadays, decellularized animal tissue is one of the most widely used methods to produce engineered scaffolds for transplantation. Decellularization is defined as physically or chemically removing cellular components from tissues while retaining structural and functional extracellular matrix (ECM) components and creating an ECM-derived scaffold. Then, decellularized scaffolds could be reseeded with different cells to fabricate an autologous graft. Effective decellularization methods preserve ECM structure and bioactivity through the application of the agents and techniques used throughout the process. The most valuable agents for the decellularization process depend on biological properties, cellular density, and the thickness of the desired tissue. ECM-derived scaffolds from various mammalian tissues have been recently used in research and preclinical applications in tissue engineering. Many studies have shown that decellularized ECM-derived scaffolds could be obtained from tissues and organs such as the liver, cartilage, bone, kidney, lung, and skin. This review addresses the significance of ECM in organisms and various decellularization agents utilized to prepare the ECM. Also, we describe the current knowledge of the decellularization of different tissues and their applications.

Point-of-Need Additive Manufacturing in Austere Arctic Environments: An Evaluation of Medical Logistics Requirements and Capabilities Demonstration

Medical response to military conflicts, natural disasters, and humanitarian crises are challenged by operational logistics with unreliable supply chains, delayed medical evacuation, and compatibility of the disparate medical equipment and consumables. In these environments, stocks of supplies will become more quickly depleted and the need for equipment parts increases secondary to their higher likelihood for failure from overuse. Additive Manufacturing (AM), or 3D printing, at or closer to the point-of-need provides potential solutions to mitigate these logistics challenges. AM's ability to tailor the resultant product through computer design enables real-time modification of a product to meet a specific situation. In this study, we deployed two different 3D printers to an arctic locale to demonstrate the utility of 3D printing and bioprinting in austere environments. Deployment of AM solutions in austere environments will likely impact medical care following natural disasters and conflicts with contested logistics. The work presented here furthers the readiness status of AM for use in austere environments to manufacture medical equipment parts and demonstrates its potential use for tissue engineering and advanced medical treatments in remote environments.

Printable devices for neurotechnology

Printable electronics for neurotechnology is a rapidly emerging field that leverages various printing techniques to fabricate electronic devices, offering advantages in rapid prototyping, scalability, and cost-effectiveness. These devices have promising applications in neurobiology, enabling the recording of neuronal signals and controlled drug delivery. This review provides an overview of printing techniques, materials used in neural device fabrication, and their applications. The printing techniques discussed include inkjet, screen printing, flexographic printing, 3D printing, and more. Each method has its unique advantages and challenges, ranging from precise printing and high resolution to material compatibility and scalability. Selecting the right materials for printable devices is crucial, considering factors like biocompatibility, flexibility, electrical properties, and durability. Conductive materials such as metallic nanoparticles and conducting polymers are commonly used in neurotechnology. Dielectric materials, like polyimide and polycaprolactone, play a vital role in device fabrication. Applications of printable devices in neurotechnology encompass various neuroprobes, electrocorticography arrays, and microelectrode arrays. These devices offer flexibility, biocompatibility, and scalability, making them cost-effective and suitable for preclinical research. However, several challenges need to be addressed, including biocompatibility, precision, electrical performance, long-term stability, and regulatory hurdles. This review highlights the potential of printable electronics in advancing our understanding of the brain and treating neurological disorders while emphasizing the importance of overcoming these challenges.

Application of Adipose Stem Cells in 3D Nerve Guidance Conduit Prevents Muscle Atrophy and Improves Distal Muscle Compliance in a Peripheral Nerve Regeneration Model

BACKGROUND

Peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs) represent a significant clinical problem, and standard approaches to nerve repair have limitations. Recent breakthroughs in 3D printing and stem cell technologies offer a promising solution for nerve regeneration. The main purpose of this study was to examine the biomechanical characteristics in muscle tissue distal to a nerve defect in a murine model of peripheral nerve regeneration from physiological stress to failure.

METHODS

In this experimental study, we enrolled 18 Wistar rats in which we created a 10 mm sciatic nerve defect. Furthermore, we divided them into three groups as follows: in Group 1, we used 3D nerve guidance conduits (NGCs) and adipose stem cells (ASCs) in seven rats; in Group 2, we used only 3D NGCs for seven rats; and in Group 3, we created only the defect in four rats. We monitored the degree of atrophy at 4, 8, and 12 weeks by measuring the diameter of the tibialis anterior (TA) muscle. At the end of 12 weeks, we took the TA muscle and analyzed it uniaxially at 10% stretch until failure.

RESULTS

In the group of animals with 3D NGCs and ASCs, we recorded the lowest degree of atrophy at 4 weeks, 8 weeks, and 12 weeks after nerve reconstruction. At 10% stretch, the control group had the highest Cauchy stress values compared to the 3D NGC group (0.164 MPa vs. 0.141 MPa, p = 0.007) and the 3D NGC + ASC group (0.164 MPa vs. 0.123 MPa, p = 0.007). In addition, we found that the control group (1.763 MPa) had the highest TA muscle stiffness, followed by the 3D NGC group (1.412 MPa), with the best muscle elasticity showing in the group in which we used 3D NGC + ASC (1.147 MPa). At failure, TA muscle samples from the 3D NGC + ASC group demonstrated better compliance and a higher degree of elasticity compared to the other two groups (p = 0.002 and p = 0.008).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrates that the combination of 3D NGC and ASC increases the process of nerve regeneration and significantly improves the compliance and mechanical characteristics of muscle tissue distal to the injury site in a PNI murine model.

Development of 3D Printed pNIPAM-Chitosan Scaffolds for Dentoalveolar Tissue Engineering

While available treatments have addressed a variety of complications in the dentoalveolar region, associated challenges have resulted in exploration of tissue engineering techniques. Often, scaffold biomaterials with specific properties are required for such strategies to be successful, development of which is an active area of research. This study focuses on the development of a copolymer of poly (N-isopropylacrylamide) (pNIPAM) and chitosan, used for 3D printing of scaffolds for dentoalveolar regeneration. The synthesized material was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and the possibility of printing was evaluated through various printability tests. The rate of degradation and swelling was analyzed through gravimetry, and surface morphology was characterized by scanning electron microscopy. Viability of dental pulp stem cells seeded on the scaffolds was evaluated by live/dead analysis and DNA quantification. The results demonstrated successful copolymerization, and three formulations among various synthesized formulations were successfully 3D printed. Up to 35% degradability was confirmed within 7 days, and a maximum swelling of approximately 1200% was achieved. Furthermore, initial assessment of cell viability demonstrated biocompatibility of the developed scaffolds. While further studies are required to achieve the tissue engineering goals, the present results tend to indicate that the proposed hydrogel might be a valid candidate for scaffold fabrication serving dentoalveolar tissue engineering through 3D printing.

BMP-2-immobilized PCL 3D printing scaffold with a leaf-stacked structure as a physically and biologically activated bone graft

Although three-dimensional (3D) printing techniques are used to mimic macro- and micro-structures as well as multi-structural human tissues in tissue engineering, efficient target tissue regeneration requires bioactive 3D printing scaffolds. In this study, we developed a bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2)-immobilized polycaprolactone (PCL) 3D printing scaffold with leaf-stacked structure (LSS) (3D-PLSS-BMP) as a bioactive patient-tailored bone graft. The unique LSS was introduced on the strand surface of the scaffold via heating/cooling in tetraglycol without significant deterioration in physical properties. The BMP-2 adsorbed on3D-PLSS-BMPwas continuously released from LSS over a period of 32 d. The LSS can be a microtopographical cue for improved focal cell adhesion, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation.In vitrocell culture andin vivoanimal studies demonstrated the biological (bioactive BMP-2) and physical (microrough structure) mechanisms of3D-PLSS-BMPfor accelerated bone regeneration. Thus, bioactive molecule-immobilized 3D printing scaffold with LSS represents a promising physically and biologically activated bone graft as well as an advanced tool for widespread application in clinical and research fields.

A biologically functional bioink based on extracellular matrix derived collagen for 3D printing of skin

Over the past few years, several advancements have been made to develop artificial skin that mimics human skin. Artificial skin manufactured using 3D printing technology that includes all epidermal and dermal components, such as collagen, may offer a viable solution. The skin-specific bioink was derived from digested chicken skin and incorporated into PVA (polyvinyl alcohol) and gelatin. The prepared bioink was further analyzed for its structure, stability, biocompatibility, and wound healing potential in in vitro, in ovo, and in vivo models. The 3D-printed skin showed excellent mechanical properties. In vitro scratch assays showed the proliferation and migration of cells within 24 h. In an in ovo assay, the 3D-printed skin facilitated the attachment of cells to the scaffolds. In the animal study, the quick cellular recruitment at the injury site accelerated wound healing. Further, hydroxyproline content was estimated to be 0.9-1.2 mg/ml, and collagen content was 7.5 %, which confirmed the epithelization. The relative expressions of MMP-9, COMP, TNF-α, and IL-6 genes were found to be increased compared to the control. These results demonstrate that 3D bioprinting represents a suitable technology to generate bioengineered skin for therapeutic and industrial applications in an automated manner.

An Intelligent and Efficient Workflow for Path-Oriented 3D Bioprinting of Tubular Scaffolds

Modern 3D printing is a valuable tool for tissue engineering (TE), and the fabrication of complex geometries such as tubular scaffolds with adaptable structure, for example, as replacements for intestines, bronchi, esophagus, or vessels, could contribute to standardized procedures in the future of regenerative medicine. However, high-precision bioprinting of scaffolds for tubular TE applications remain a major challenge and is an arduous endeavor with currently available three-axis bioprinters, which are limited to planar, layer-by-layer printing processes. In this work, a novel, straightforward workflow for creating toolpaths and command sets for tubular scaffolds is presented. By combining a custom software application with commercial 3D design software, a comparatively large degree of design freedom was achieved while ensuring ease of use and extensibility for future research needs. As a hardware platform, two commercial 3D bioprinters were retrofitted with a rotary axis to accommodate cylindrical mandrels as print beds, overcoming the limitations of planar print beds. The printing process using the new method was evaluated in terms of the mechanical, actuation, and synchronization characteristics of the linear and rotating axes, as well as the stability of the printing process. In this context, it became clear that extrusion-based printing processes are very sensitive to positioning errors when used with small nozzles. Despite these technical difficulties, the new process can produce single-layer, multilayer, and multimaterial structures with a wide range of pore geometries. In addition, extrusion-based printing processes can be combined with melt electrowriting to produce durable scaffolds with features in the micrometer to millimeter range. Overall, the suitability of this setup for a wide range of TE applications has thus been demonstrated.

Engineering multicomponent tissue by spontaneous adhesion of myogenic and adipogenic microtissues cultured with customized scaffolds

The integration of intramuscular fat-or marbling-into cultured meat will be critical for meat texture, mouthfeel, flavor, and thus consumer appeal. However, culturing muscle tissue with marbling is challenging since myocytes and adipocytes have different media and scaffold requirements for optimal growth and differentiation. Here, we present an approach to engineer multicomponent tissue using myogenic and adipogenic microtissues. The key innovation in our approach is the engineering of myogenic and adipogenic microtissues using scaffolds with customized physical properties; we use these microtissues as building blocks that spontaneously adhere to produce multicomponent tissue, or marbled cultured meat. Myocytes are grown and differentiated on gelatin nanofiber scaffolds with aligned topology that mimic the aligned structure of skeletal muscle and promotes the formation of myotubes in both primary rabbit skeletal muscle and murine C2C12 cells. Pre-adipocytes are cultured and differentiated on edible gelatin microbead scaffolds, which are customized to have a physiologically-relevant stiffness, and promote lipid accumulation in both primary rabbit and murine 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes. After harvesting and stacking the individual myogenic and adipogenic microtissues, we find that the resultant multicomponent tissues adhere into intact structures within 6-12 h in culture. The resultant multicomponent 3D tissue constructs show behavior of a solid material with a Young's modulus of ∼ 2 ± 0.4 kPa and an ultimate tensile strength of ∼ 23 ± 7 kPa without the use of additional crosslinkers. Using this approach, we generate marbled cultured meat with ∼ mm to ∼ cm thickness, which has a protein content of ∼ 4 ± 2 g/100 g that is comparable to a conventionally produced Wagyu steak with a protein content of ∼ 9 ± 4 g/100 g. We show the translatability of this layer-by-layer assembly approach for microtissues across primary rabbit cells, murine cell lines, as well as for gelatin and plant-based scaffolds, which demonstrates a strategy to generate edible marbled meats derived from different species and scaffold materials.

From materials to clinical use: advances in 3D-printed scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering

Osteoarthritis caused by articular cartilage defects is a particularly common orthopedic disease that can involve the entire joint, causing great pain to its sufferers. A global patient population of approximately 250 million people has an increasing demand for new therapies with excellent results, and tissue engineering scaffolds have been proposed as a potential strategy for the repair and reconstruction of cartilage defects. The precise control and high flexibility of 3D printing provide a platform for subversive innovation. In this perspective, cartilage tissue engineering (CTE) scaffolds manufactured using different biomaterials are summarized from the perspective of 3D printing strategies, the bionic structure strategies and special functional designs are classified and discussed, and the advantages and limitations of these CTE scaffold preparation strategies are analyzed in detail. Finally, the application prospect and challenges of 3D printed CTE scaffolds are discussed, providing enlightening insights for their current research.

In Vitro and In Vivo Biological Assessments of 3D-Bioprinted Scaffolds for Dental Applications

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting is a unique combination of technological advances in 3D printing and tissue engineering. It has emerged as a promising approach to address the dilemma in current dental treatments faced by clinicians in order to repair or replace injured and diseased tissues. The exploration of 3D bioprinting technology provides high reproducibility and precise control of the bioink containing the desired cells and biomaterial over the architectural and dimensional features of the scaffolds in fabricating functional tissue constructs that are specific to the patient treatment need. In recent years, the dental applications of different 3D bioprinting techniques, types of novel bioinks, and the types of cells used have been extensively explored. Most of the findings noted significant challenges compared to the non-biological 3D printing approach in constructing the bioscaffolds that mimic native tissues. Hence, this review focuses solely on the implementation of 3D bioprinting techniques and strategies based on cell-laden bioinks. It discusses the in vitro applications of 3D-bioprinted scaffolds on cell viabilities, cell functionalities, differentiation ability, and expression of the markers as well as the in vivo evaluations of the implanted bioscaffolds on the animal models for bone, periodontal, dentin, and pulp tissue regeneration. Finally, it outlines some perspectives for future developments in dental applications.

Recent advances and future directions of 3D to 6D printing in brain cancer treatment and neural tissue engineering

The field of neural tissue engineering has undergone a revolution due to advancements in three-dimensional (3D) printing technology. This technology now enables the creation of intricate neural tissue constructs with precise geometries, topologies, and mechanical properties. Currently, there are various 3D printing techniques available, such as stereolithography and digital light processing, and a wide range of materials can be utilized, including hydrogels, biopolymers, and synthetic materials. Furthermore, the development of four-dimensional (4D) printing has gained traction, allowing for the fabrication of structures that can change shape over time using techniques such as shape-memory polymers. These innovations have the potential to facilitate neural regeneration, drug screening, disease modeling, and hold tremendous promise for personalized diagnostics, precise therapeutic strategies against brain cancers. This review paper provides a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art techniques and materials for 3D printing in neural tissue engineering and brain cancer. It focuses on the exciting possibilities that lie ahead, including the emerging field of 4D printing. Additionally, the paper discusses the potential applications of five-dimensional and six-dimensional printing, which integrate time and biological functions into the printing process, in the fields of neuroscience.

Direct Integration of 3D Printing and Cryogel Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering

Cryogels, known for their biocompatibility and porous structure, lack mechanical strength, while 3D-printed scaffolds have excellent mechanical properties but limited porosity resolution. By combining a 3D-printed plastic gyroid lattice scaffold with a chitosan-gelatin cryogel scaffold, a scaffold can be created that balances the advantages of both fabrication methods. This study compared the pore diameter, swelling potential, mechanical characteristics, and cellular infiltration capability of combined scaffolds and control cryogels. The incorporation of the 3D-printed lattice demonstrated patient-specific geometry capabilities and significantly improved mechanical strength compared to the control cryogel. The combined scaffolds exhibited similar porosity and relative swelling ratio to the control cryogels. However, they had reduced elasticity, reduced absolute swelling capacity, and are potentially cytotoxic, which may affect their performance. This paper presents a novel approach to combine two scaffold types to retain the advantages of each scaffold type while mitigating their shortcomings.

Assessment of Additive Manufactured IN 625's Tensile Strength Based on Nonstandard Specimens

The study aimed to evaluate the tensile strength of additively manufactured (AMed) IN 625 using sub-sized test pieces and compare them to standard specimens. Cylindrical round coupons of varying diameters were manufactured along the Z-axis using the laser powder bed fusion technique and subjected to heat treatment. The simulation of the alloy solidification predicted the formation of several intermetallics and carbides under equilibrium conditions (slow cooling), apart from the γ phase (FCC). Sub-sized tensile specimens with different gauge diameters were machined from the coupons and tensile tested at ambient temperature. The results showed that sub-sized specimens exhibited lower tensile and yield strengths compared to standard specimens, but still higher than the minimum requirements of the relevant ASTM standard for AMed IN 625. The lower strength was attributed to the "size effect" of the test specimens. Fracture surfaces of the sub-sized test specimens exhibit a mixed character, combining cleavage and microvoid coalescence, with improved ductility compared to standard test pieces. The study highlights the importance of adapting characterization methods to the particularities of manufactured parts, including reduced thicknesses that make sampling standard-size specimens impractical. It concludes that sub-sized specimens are valuable for quality control and verifying compliance with requirements of AMed IN 625 tensile properties.

The current state of the art in gellan-based printing inks in tissue engineering

With the advancement of enhanced fabrication technologies, specifically 3D printing, it is now possible to build artificial tissue for personalized healing. However, inks developed from polymers often fail to meet expectations in terms of mechanical strength, scaffold integrity, and the stimulation of tissue formation. Developing new printable formulations as well as adapting existing printing methods is an essential aspect of contemporary biofabrication research. In order to push the boundaries of the printability window, various strategies have been developed employing gellan gum. This has resulted in major breakthroughs in the development of 3D hydrogels scaffolds that exhibit significant resemblance to genuine tissues and enables the fabrication of more complex systems. In light of the many uses of gellan gum, the purpose of this paper is to provide a synopsis of the printable ink designs drawing attention to the various compositions and fabrication approaches that may be used for tuning the properties of 3D printed hydrogels for tissue engineering applications. The purpose of this article is to outline the development of gellan-based 3D printing inks and to encourage research by highlighting the possible applications of gellan gum.

Placenta Powder-Infused Thiol-Ene PEG Hydrogels as Potential Tissue Engineering Scaffolds

Human placenta is a source of extracellular matrix for tissue engineering. In this study, placenta powder (PP), made from decellularized human placenta, was physically incorporated into synthetic poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-based hydrogels via UV-initiated thiol-ene coupling (TEC). The PP-incorporated PEG hydrogels (MoDPEG+) showed tunable storage moduli ranging from 1080 ± 290 to 51,400 ± 200 Pa. The addition of PP (1, 4, or 8 wt %) within the PEG hydrogels increased the storage moduli, with the 8 wt % PP hydrogels showing the highest storage moduli. PP reduced the swelling ratios compared with the pristine hydrogels (MoDPEG). All hydrogels showed good biocompatibility in vitro toward human skin cells and murine macrophages, with cell viability above 91%. Importantly, cells could adhere and proliferate on MoDPEG+ hydrogels due to the bioactive PP, while MoDPEG hydrogels were bio-inert as cells moved away from the hydrogel or were distributed in a large cluster on the hydrogel surface. To showcase their potential use in application-driven research, the MoDPEG+ hydrogels were straightforwardly (i) 3D printed using the SLA technique and (ii) produced via high-energy visible light (HEV-TEC) to populate damaged soft-tissue or bone cavities. Taking advantage of the bioactivity of PP and the tunable physicochemical properties of the synthetic PEG hydrogels, the presented MoDPEG+ hydrogels show great promise for tissue regeneration.

3D printing method for bone tissue engineering scaffold

3D printing technology is an emerging technology. It constructs solid bodies by stacking materials layer by layer, and can quickly and accurately prepare bone tissue engineering scaffolds with specific shapes and structures to meet the needs of different patients. The field of life sciences has received a great deal of attention. However, different 3D printing technologies and materials have their advantages and disadvantages, and there are limitations in clinical application. In this paper, the technology, materials and clinical applications of 3D printed bone tissue engineering scaffolds are reviewed, and the future development trends and challenges in this field are prospected.

Biomechanical behavior of PMMA 3D printed biomimetic scaffolds: Effects of physiologically relevant environment

Functional cellular structures with controllable mechanical and morphological properties are of great interest for applications including tissue engineering, energy storage, and aerospace. Additive manufacturing (AM), also referred to as 3D printing, has enabled the potential for fabrication of functional porous scaffolds (i.e., meta-biomaterials) with controlled geometrical, morphological, and mechanical properties. Understanding the biomechanical behavior of 3D printed porous scaffolds under physiologically relevant loading and environmental conditions is crucial in accurately predicting the in vivo performance. This study was aimed to investigate the environmental dependency of the mechanical responses of 3D printed porous scaffolds of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) Class IIa biomaterial that was based on triply periodic minimal surfaces - TPMS (i.e., Primitive and Schoen-IWP). The 3D printed scaffolds (n = 5/study group) were tested under compressive loading in both ambient and fluidic (distilled water with pH = 7.4) environments according to ASTM D1621 standards. Outcomes of this study showed that compressive properties of the developed scaffolds are significantly lower in the fluidic condition than the ambient environment for the same topological and morphological group (p≤0.023). Additionally, compressive properties and flexural stiffness of the studied scaffolds were within the range of trabecular bone's properties, for both topological classes. Relationships between predicted mechanical responses and morphological properties (i.e., porosity) were evaluated for each topological class. Quantitative correlation analysis indicated that mechanical behavior of the developed 3D printed scaffolds can be controlled based on both topology and morphology.

Multi-Parametric Exploration of a Selection of Piezoceramic Materials for Bone Graft Substitute Applications

This work was devoted to the first multi-parametric unitary comparative analysis of a selection of sintered piezoceramic materials synthesised by solid-state reactions, aiming to delineate the most promising biocompatible piezoelectric material, to be further implemented into macro-porous ceramic scaffolds fabricated by 3D printing technologies. The piezoceramics under scrutiny were: KNbO₃, LiNbO₃, LiTaO₃, BaTiO₃, Zr-doped BaTiO₃, and the (Ba_0.85Ca_0.15)(Ti_0.9Zr_0.1)O₃ solid solution (BCTZ). The XRD analysis revealed the high crystallinity of all sintered ceramics, while the best densification was achieved for the BaTiO₃-based materials via conventional sintering. Conjunctively, BCTZ yielded the best combination of functional properties-piezoelectric response (in terms of longitudinal piezoelectric constant and planar electromechanical coupling factor) and mechanical and in vitro osteoblast cell compatibility. The selected piezoceramic was further used as a base material for the robocasting fabrication of 3D macro-porous scaffolds (porosity of ~50%), which yielded a promising compressive strength of ~20 MPa (higher than that of trabecular bone), excellent cell colonization capability, and noteworthy cytocompatibility in osteoblast cell cultures, analogous to the biological control. Thereby, good prospects for the possible development of a new generation of synthetic bone graft substitutes endowed with the piezoelectric effect as a stimulus for the enhancement of osteogenic capacity were settled.

Block Copolymers in 3D/4D Printing: Advances and Applications as Biomaterials

3D printing is a manufacturing technique in constant evolution. Day by day, new materials and methods are discovered, making 3D printing continually develop. 3D printers are also evolving, giving us objects with better resolution, faster, and in mass production. One of the areas in 3D printing that has excellent potential is 4D printing. It is a technique involving materials that can react to an environmental stimulus (pH, heat, magnetism, humidity, electricity, and light), causing an alteration in their physical or chemical state and performing another function. Lately, 3D/4D printing has been increasingly used for fabricating materials aiming at drug delivery, scaffolds, bioinks, tissue engineering (soft and hard), synthetic organs, and even printed cells. The majority of the materials used in 3D printing are polymeric. These materials can be of natural origin or synthetic ones of different architectures and combinations. The use of block copolymers can combine the exemplary properties of both blocks to have better mechanics, processability, biocompatibility, and possible stimulus behavior via tunable structures. This review has gathered fundamental aspects of 3D/4D printing for biomaterials, and it shows the advances and applications of block copolymers in the field of biomaterials over the last years.

A Comprehensive Review of Electrospun Fibers, 3D-Printed Scaffolds, and Hydrogels for Cancer Therapies

Anticancer therapies and regenerative medicine are being developed to destroy tumor cells, as well as remodel, replace, and support injured organs and tissues. Nowadays, a suitable three-dimensional structure of the scaffold and the type of cells used are crucial for creating bio-inspired organs and tissues. The materials used in medicine are made of non-degradable and degradable biomaterials and can serve as drug carriers. Developing flexible and properly targeted drug carrier systems is crucial for tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, and novel cancer treatment strategies. This review is focused on presenting innovative biomaterials, i.e., electrospun nanofibers, 3D-printed scaffolds, and hydrogels as a novel approach for anticancer treatments which are still under development and awaiting thorough optimization.

Emerging biomaterials and technologies to control stem cell fate and patterning in engineered 3D tissues and organoids

The ability to create complex three-dimensional cellular models that can effectively replicate the structure and function of human organs and tissues in vitro has the potential to revolutionize medicine. Such models could facilitate the interrogation of developmental and disease processes underpinning fundamental discovery science, vastly accelerate drug development and screening, or even be used to create tissues for implantation into the body. Realization of this potential, however, requires the recreation of complex biochemical, biophysical, and cellular patterns of 3D tissues and remains a key challenge in the field. Recent advances are being driven by improved knowledge of tissue morphogenesis and architecture and technological developments in bioengineering and materials science that can create the multidimensional and dynamic systems required to produce complex tissue microenvironments. In this article, we discuss challenges for in vitro models of tissues and organs and summarize the current state-of-the art in biomaterials and bioengineered systems that aim to address these challenges. This includes both top-down technologies, such as 3D photopatterning, magnetism, acoustic forces, and cell origami, as well as bottom-up patterning using 3D bioprinting, microfluidics, cell sheet technology, or composite scaffolds. We illustrate the varying ways that these can be applied to suit the needs of different tissues and applications by focussing on specific examples of patterning the bone-tendon interface, kidney organoids, and brain cancer models. Finally, we discuss the challenges and future prospects in applying materials science and bioengineering to develop high-quality 3D tissue structures for in vitro studies.

A Tissue Engineering Acoustophoretic (TEA) Set-up for the Enhanced Osteogenic Differentiation of Murine Mesenchymal Stromal Cells (mMSCs)

Quickly developing precision medicine and patient-oriented treatment strategies urgently require novel technological solutions. The randomly cell-populated scaffolds usually used for tissue engineering often fail to mimic the highly anisotropic characteristics of native tissue. In this work, an ultrasound standing-wave-based tissue engineering acoustophoretic (TEA) set-up was developed to organize murine mesenchymal stromal cells (mMSCs) in an in situ polymerizing 3-D fibrin hydrogel. The resultant constructs, consisting of 17 cell layers spaced at 300 µm, were obtained by continuous wave ultrasound applied at a 2.5 MHz frequency. The patterned mMSCs preserved the structured behavior within 10 days of culturing in osteogenic conditions. Cell viability was moderately increased 1 day after the patterning; it subdued and evened out, with the cells randomly encapsulated in hydrogels, within 21 days of culturing. Cells in the structured hydrogels exhibited enhanced expression of certain osteogenic markers, i.e., Runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2), osterix (Osx) transcription factor, collagen-1 alpha1 (COL1A1), osteopontin (OPN), osteocalcin (OCN), and osteonectin (ON), as well as of certain cell-cycle-progression-associated genes, i.e., Cyclin D1, cysteine-rich angiogenic inducer 61 (CYR61), and anillin (ANLN), when cultured with osteogenic supplements and, for ANLN, also in the expansion media. Additionally, OPN expression was also augmented on day 5 in the patterned gels cultured without the osteoinductive media, suggesting the pro-osteogenic influence of the patterned cell organization. The TEA set-up proposes a novel method for non-invasively organizing cells in a 3-D environment, potentially enhancing the regenerative properties of the designed anisotropic constructs for bone healing.

Bioinspired micro- and nano-structured neural interfaces

The development of a functional nervous system requires neurons to interact with and promptly respond to a wealth of biochemical, mechanical and topographical cues found in the neural extracellular matrix (ECM). Among these, ECM topographical cues have been found to strongly influence neuronal function and behavior. Here, we discuss how the blueprint of the architectural organization of the brain ECM has been tremendously useful as a source of inspiration to design biomimetic substrates to enhance neural interfaces and dictate neuronal behavior at the cell-material interface. In particular, we focus on different strategies to recapitulate cell-ECM and cell-cell interactions. In order to mimic cell-ECM interactions, we introduce roughness as a first approach to provide informative topographical biomimetic cues to neurons. We then examine 3D scaffolds and hydrogels, as softer 3D platforms for neural interfaces. Moreover, we will discuss how anisotropic features such as grooves and fibers, recapitulating both ECM fibrils and axonal tracts, may provide recognizable paths and tracks that neuron can follow as they develop and establish functional connections. Finally, we show how isotropic topographical cues, recapitulating shapes, and geometries of filopodia- and mushroom-like dendritic spines, have been instrumental to better reproduce neuron-neuron interactions for applications in bioelectronics and neural repair strategies. The high complexity of the brain architecture makes the quest for the fabrication of create more biologically relevant biomimetic architectures in continuous and fast development. Here, we discuss how recent advancements in two-photon polymerization and remotely reconfigurable dynamic interfaces are paving the way towards to a new class of smart biointerfaces forin vitroapplications spanning from neural tissue engineering as well as neural repair strategies.

Application of medical imaging methods and artificial intelligence in tissue engineering and organ-on-a-chip

Organ-on-a-chip (OOC) is a new type of biochip technology. Various types of OOC systems have been developed rapidly in the past decade and found important applications in drug screening and precision medicine. However, due to the complexity in the structure of both the chip-body itself and the engineered-tissue inside, the imaging and analysis of OOC have still been a big challenge for biomedical researchers. Considering that medical imaging is moving towards higher spatial and temporal resolution and has more applications in tissue engineering, this paper aims to review medical imaging methods, including CT, micro-CT, MRI, small animal MRI, and OCT, and introduces the application of 3D printing in tissue engineering and OOC in which medical imaging plays an important role. The achievements of medical imaging assisted tissue engineering are reviewed, and the potential applications of medical imaging in organoids and OOC are discussed. Moreover, artificial intelligence - especially deep learning - has demonstrated its excellence in the analysis of medical imaging; we will also present the application of artificial intelligence in the image analysis of 3D tissues, especially for organoids developed in novel OOC systems.

Fabrication of Polymer/Graphene Biocomposites for Tissue Engineering

Graphene-based materials (GBM) are considered one of the 21st century’s most promising materials, as they are incredibly light, strong, thin and have remarkable electrical and thermal properties. As a result, over the past decade, their combination with a diverse range of synthetic polymers has been explored in tissue engineering (TE) and regenerative medicine (RM). In addition, a wide range of methods for fabricating polymer/GBM scaffolds have been reported. This review provides an overview of the most recent advances in polymer/GBM composite development and fabrication, focusing on methods such as electrospinning and additive manufacturing (AM). As a future outlook, this work stresses the need for more in vivo studies to validate polymer/GBM composite scaffolds for TE applications, and gives insight on their fabrication by state-of-the-art processing technologies.

Three-dimensional-printed polycaprolactone/polypyrrole conducting scaffolds for differentiation of human olfactory ecto-mesenchymal stem cells into Schwann cell-like phenotypes and promotion of neurite outgrowth

Implantation of a suitable nerve guide conduit (NGC) seeded with sufficient Schwann cells (SCs) is required to improve peripheral nerve regeneration efficiently. Given the limitations of isolating and culturing SCs, using various sources of stem cells, including mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) obtained from nasal olfactory mucosa, can be desirable. Olfactory ecto-MSCs (OE-MSCs) are a new population of neural crest-derived stem cells that can proliferate and differentiate into SCs and can be considered a promising autologous alternative to produce SCs. Regardless, a biomimetic physicochemical microenvironment in NGC such as electroconductive substrate can affect the fate of transplanted stem cells, including differentiation toward SCs and nerve regeneration. Therefore, in this study, the effect of 3D printed polycaprolactone (PCL)/polypyrrole (PPy) conductive scaffolds on differentiation of human OE-MSCS into functional SC-like phenotypes was investigated. Biological evaluation of 3D printed scaffolds was examined by in vitro culturing the OE-MSCs on samples surfaces, and conductivity showed no effect on increased cell attachment, proliferation rate, viability, and distribution. In contrast, immunocytochemical staining and real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis indicated that 3D structures coated with PPy could provide a favorable microenvironment for OE-MSCs differentiation. In addition, it was found that differentiated OE-MSCs within PCL/PPy could secrete the highest amounts of nerve growth factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor neurotrophic factors compared to pure PCL and 2D culture. After co-culturing with PC12 cells, a significant increase in neurite outgrowth on PCL/PPy conductive scaffold seeded with differentiated OE-MSCs. These findings indicated that 3D printed PCL/PPy conductive scaffold could support differentiation of OE-MSCs into SC-like phenotypes to promote neurite outgrowth, suggesting their potential for neural tissue engineering applications.

Three-Dimensional-Printed Scaffolds for Meniscus Tissue Engineering: Opportunity for the Future in the Orthopaedic World

The meniscus is a critical component of a healthy knee joint. It is a complex and vital fibrocartilaginous tissue that maintains appropriate biomechanics. Injuries of the meniscus, particularly in the inner region, rarely heal and usually progress into structural breakdown, followed by meniscus deterioration and initiation of osteoarthritis. Conventional therapies range from conservative treatment, to partial meniscectomy and even meniscus transplantation. All the above have high long-term failure rates, with recurrence of symptoms. This communication presents a brief account of in vitro and in vivo studies and describes recent developments in the field of 3D-printed scaffolds for meniscus tissue engineering. Current research in meniscal tissue engineering tries to combine polymeric biomaterials, cell-based therapy, growth factors, and 3D-printed scaffolds to promote the healing of meniscal defects. Today, 3D-printing technology represents a big opportunity in the orthopaedic world to create more specific implants, enabling the rapid production of meniscal scaffolds and changing the way that orthopaedic surgeons plan procedures. In the future, 3D-printed meniscal scaffolds are likely to be available and will also be suitable substitutes in clinical applications, in an attempt to imitate the complexity of the native meniscus.

Hydrogel, Electrospun and Composite Materials for Bone/Cartilage and Neural Tissue Engineering

Injuries of the bone/cartilage and central nervous system are still a serious socio-economic problem. They are an effect of diversified, difficult-to-access tissue structures as well as complex regeneration mechanisms. Currently, commercially available materials partially solve this problem, but they do not fulfill all of the bone/cartilage and neural tissue engineering requirements such as mechanical properties, biochemical cues or adequate biodegradation. There are still many things to do to provide complete restoration of injured tissues. Recent reports in bone/cartilage and neural tissue engineering give high hopes in designing scaffolds for complete tissue regeneration. This review thoroughly discusses the advantages and disadvantages of currently available commercial scaffolds and sheds new light on the designing of novel polymeric scaffolds composed of hydrogels, electrospun nanofibers, or hydrogels loaded with nano-additives.

3D printing in biotechnology-An insight into miniaturized and microfluidic systems for applications from cell culture to bioanalytics

Since its invention in the 1980s, 3D printing has evolved into a versatile technique for the additive manufacturing of diverse objects and tools, using various materials. The relative flexibility, straightforwardness, and ability to enable rapid prototyping are tremendous advantages offered by this technique compared to conventional methods for miniaturized and microfluidic systems fabrication (such as soft lithography). The development of 3D printers exhibiting high printer resolution has enabled the fabrication of accurate miniaturized and microfluidic systems-which have, in turn, substantially reduced both device sizes and required sample volumes. Moreover, the continuing development of translucent, heat resistant, and biocompatible materials will make 3D printing more and more useful for applications in biotechnology in the coming years. Today, a wide variety of 3D-printed objects in biotechnology-ranging from miniaturized cultivation chambers to microfluidic lab-on-a-chip devices for diagnostics-are already being deployed in labs across the world. This review explains the 3D printing technologies that are currently used to fabricate such miniaturized microfluidic devices, and also seeks to offer some insight into recent developments demonstrating the use of these tools for biotechnological applications such as cell culture, separation techniques, and biosensors.