1
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Biessy L, Pearman JK, Mertens KN, Réveillon D, Savar V, Hess P, Hampton H, Thompson L, Lebrun L, Terre-Terrillon A, Smith KF. Sudden peak in tetrodotoxin in French oysters during the summer of 2021: Source investigation using microscopy, metabarcoding and droplet digital PCR. Toxicon 2024; 243:107721. [PMID: 38636612 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.107721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin causing human intoxications from contaminated seafood worldwide and is of emerging concern in Europe. Shellfish have been shown to contain varying TTX concentrations globally, with concentrations typically higher in Pacific oysters Crassostrea gigas in Europe. Despite many decades of research, the source of TTX remains unknown, with bacterial or algal origins having been suggested. The aim of this study was to identify potential source organisms causing TTX contamination in Pacific oysters in French coastal waters, using three different techniques. Oysters were deployed in cages from April to September 2021 in an estuary where TTX was previously detected. Microscopic analyses of water samples were used to investigate potential microalgal blooms present prior or during the peak in TTX. Differences in the bacterial communities from oyster digestive glands (DG) and remaining flesh were explored using metabarcoding, and lastly, droplet digital PCR assays were developed to investigate the presence of Cephalothrix sp., one European TTX-bearing species in the DG of toxic C. gigas. Oysters analysed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry contained quantifiable levels of TTX over a three-week period (24 June-15 July 2021), with concentrations decreasing in the DG from 424 μg/kg for the first detection to 101 μg/kg (equivalent to 74 to 17 μg/kg of total flesh), and trace levels being detected until August 13, 2021. These concentrations are the first report of the European TTX guidance levels being exceeded in French shellfish. Microscopy revealed that some microalgae bloomed during the TTX peak, (e.g., Chaetoceros spp., reaching 40,000 cells/L). Prokaryotic metabarcoding showed increases in abundance of Rubritaleaceae (genus Persicirhabdus) and Neolyngbya, before and during the TTX peak. Both phyla have previously been described as possible TTX-producers and should be investigated further. Droplet digital PCR analyses were negative for the targeted TTX-bearing genus Cephalothrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Biessy
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand.
| | - John K Pearman
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
| | - Kenneth Neil Mertens
- Ifremer, LITTORAL Unit, Place de la Croix, BP40537, 29900, Concarneau CEDEX, France
| | | | | | | | - Hannah Hampton
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
| | - Lucy Thompson
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
| | - Luc Lebrun
- Ifremer, LITTORAL Unit, Place de la Croix, BP40537, 29900, Concarneau CEDEX, France
| | | | - Kirsty F Smith
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
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2
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Bökenhans V, Galván D, Bigatti G, Averbuj A. Stable Isotopes Reveal Algal Assimilation in the Carnivorous Sea Slug Pleurobranchaea maculata (Quoy & Gaimard, 1832) on Patagonian Coasts. MALACOLOGIA 2022. [DOI: 10.4002/040.065.0106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Verena Bökenhans
- LARBIM-IBIOMAR, CCT CONICET-CENPAT, Bvd. Brown 2915, U9120ACV Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina
| | - David Galván
- CESIMAR-CCT CONICET-CENPAT, Bvd. Brown 2915, U9120ACV Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina
| | - Gregorio Bigatti
- LARBIM-IBIOMAR, CCT CONICET-CENPAT, Bvd. Brown 2915, U9120ACV Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina
| | - Andrés Averbuj
- LARBIM-IBIOMAR, CCT CONICET-CENPAT, Bvd. Brown 2915, U9120ACV Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina
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3
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Melnikova DI, Magarlamov TY. An Overview of the Anatomical Distribution of Tetrodotoxin in Animals. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14080576. [PMID: 36006238 PMCID: PMC9412668 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14080576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX), a potent paralytic sodium channel blocker, is an intriguing marine toxin. Widely distributed in nature, TTX has attracted attention in various scientific fields, from biomedical studies to environmental safety concerns. Despite a long history of studies, many issues concerning the biosynthesis, origin, and spread of TTX in animals and ecosystems remain. This review aims to summarize the current knowledge on TTX circulation inside TTX-bearing animal bodies. We focus on the advances in TTX detection at the cellular and subcellular levels, providing an expanded picture of intra-organismal TTX migration mechanisms. We believe that this review will help address the gaps in the understanding of the biological function of TTX and facilitate the development of further studies involving TTX-bearing animals.
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Katikou P, Gokbulut C, Kosker AR, Campàs M, Ozogul F. An Updated Review of Tetrodotoxin and Its Peculiarities. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20010047. [PMID: 35049902 PMCID: PMC8780202 DOI: 10.3390/md20010047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a crystalline, weakly basic, colorless organic substance and is one of the most potent marine toxins known. Although TTX was first isolated from pufferfish, it has been found in numerous other marine organisms and a few terrestrial species. Moreover, tetrodotoxication is still an important health problem today, as TTX has no known antidote. TTX poisonings were most commonly reported from Japan, Thailand, and China, but today the risk of TTX poisoning is spreading around the world. Recent studies have shown that TTX-containing fish are being found in other regions of the Pacific and in the Indian Ocean, as well as the Mediterranean Sea. This review aims to summarize pertinent information available to date on the structure, origin, distribution, mechanism of action of TTX and analytical methods used for the detection of TTX, as well as on TTX-containing organisms, symptoms of TTX poisoning, and incidence worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panagiota Katikou
- Ministry of Rural Development and Food, Directorate of Research, Innovation and Education, Hapsa & Karatasou 1, 54626 Thessaloniki, Greece
- Correspondence: (P.K.); (F.O.)
| | - Cengiz Gokbulut
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Balikesir University, Balikesir 10145, Turkey;
| | - Ali Rıza Kosker
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana 01330, Turkey;
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Ctra Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain;
| | - Fatih Ozogul
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana 01330, Turkey;
- Correspondence: (P.K.); (F.O.)
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5
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Antonelli P, Salerno B, Bordin P, Peruzzo A, Orsini M, Arcangeli G, Barco L, Losasso C. Tetrodotoxin in live bivalve mollusks from Europe: Is it to be considered an emerging concern for food safety? Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2021; 21:719-737. [PMID: 34954887 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxins (TTXs) are a group of potent neurotoxins named after the Tetraodontidae fish family (pufferfish). TTXs have been reported in several animal taxa, both terrestrial and marine. The ingestion of TTX-contaminated flesh can cause serious neurotoxic symptomatology and can eventually lead to death. Traditionally, TTXs have been associated with Asian countries, in particular with pufferfish consumption. However, they have also been reported in bivalve mollusks farmed in the Pacific area and, recently, in European seas. In Europe, different countries have reported TTXs, especially those bordering the Mediterranean Sea. As a consequence, in 2017 the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) released an opinion with reference to TTX present in marine gastropods and bivalves, proposing a safety limit of 44 µg/kg TTXs in shellfish meat, below which no adverse effects should be observed in humans. Nevertheless, this limit has been exceeded on many occasions in European shellfish and, while for bivalves there have been no registered human intoxications, that is not the case for marine gastropods. However, TTXs have not yet been included in the list of marine biotoxins officially monitored in live bivalve mollusks within the European Union (EU). Thus, the aims of this manuscript are to discuss the increasing occurrence of TTXs in live bivalve mollusks from European sea waters, to acknowledge the still ongoing knowledge gaps that should be covered and to stimulate constructive debate on the eventuality of adopting a shared regulatory context, at least in the EU, for monitoring and managing this potential threat to food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pietro Antonelli
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Barbara Salerno
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Paola Bordin
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Arianna Peruzzo
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Orsini
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Arcangeli
- Specialistic Aquatic Animal Health Centre, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Lisa Barco
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Carmen Losasso
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
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6
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Marine Neurotoxins' Effects on Environmental and Human Health: An OMICS Overview. Mar Drugs 2021; 20:md20010018. [PMID: 35049872 PMCID: PMC8778346 DOI: 10.3390/md20010018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms (HAB), and the consequent release of toxic metabolites, can be responsible for seafood poisoning outbreaks. Marine wildlife can accumulate these toxins throughout the food chain, which presents a threat to consumers’ health. Some of these toxins, such as saxitoxin (STX), domoic acid (DA), ciguatoxin (CTX), brevetoxin (BTX), tetrodotoxin (TTX), and β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA), cause severe neurological symptoms in humans. Considerable information is missing, however, notably the consequences of toxin exposures on changes in gene expression, protein profile, and metabolic pathways. This information could lead to understanding the consequence of marine neurotoxin exposure in aquatic organisms and humans. Nevertheless, recent contributions to the knowledge of neurotoxins arise from OMICS-based research, such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics. This review presents a comprehensive overview of the most recent research and of the available solutions to explore OMICS datasets in order to identify new features in terms of ecotoxicology, food safety, and human health. In addition, future perspectives in OMICS studies are discussed.
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Shkembi X, Skouridou V, Svobodova M, Leonardo S, Bashammakh AS, Alyoubi AO, Campàs M, O Sullivan CK. Hybrid Antibody-Aptamer Assay for Detection of Tetrodotoxin in Pufferfish. Anal Chem 2021; 93:14810-14819. [PMID: 34697940 PMCID: PMC8581965 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c03671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
![]()
The marine toxin
tetrodotoxin (TTX) poses a great risk to public
health safety due to its severe paralytic effects after ingestion.
Seafood poisoning caused by the consumption of contaminated marine
species like pufferfish due to its expansion to nonendemic areas has
increased the need for fast and reliable detection of the toxin to
effectively implement prevention strategies. Liquid chromatography-mass
spectrometry is considered the most accurate method, although competitive
immunoassays have also been reported. In this work, we sought to develop
an aptamer-based assay for the rapid, sensitive, and cost-effective
detection of TTX in pufferfish. Using capture-SELEX combined with
next-generation sequencing, aptamers were identified, and their binding
properties were evaluated. Finally, a highly sensitive and user-friendly
hybrid antibody–aptamer sandwich assay was developed with superior
performance compared to several assays reported in the literature
and commercial immunoassay kits. The assay was successfully applied
to the quantification of TTX in pufferfish extracts, and the results
obtained correlated very well with a competitive magnetic bead-based
immunoassay performed in parallel for comparison. This is one of the
very few works reported in the literature of such hybrid assays for
small-molecule analytes whose compatibility with field samples is
also demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xhensila Shkembi
- Interfibio, Nanobiotechnology and Bioanalysis Group, Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Avinguda Paisos Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Vasso Skouridou
- Interfibio, Nanobiotechnology and Bioanalysis Group, Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Avinguda Paisos Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Marketa Svobodova
- Interfibio, Nanobiotechnology and Bioanalysis Group, Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Avinguda Paisos Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Sandra Leonardo
- IRTA, Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain
| | - Abdulaziz S Bashammakh
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80203, 21589 Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulrahman O Alyoubi
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80203, 21589 Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain
| | - Ciara K O Sullivan
- Interfibio, Nanobiotechnology and Bioanalysis Group, Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Avinguda Paisos Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain.,Institució Catalana de Recerca I Estudis Avancats (ICREA), Passeig Lluís Companys 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
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8
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Battini N, Bravo G. Unexpected meal: first record of predation upon a potentially neurotoxic sea slug by the European green crab Carcinus maenas. NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF ZOOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/03014223.2020.1848889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolás Battini
- Instituto de Biología de Organismos Marinos (IBIOMAR-CONICET), Puerto Madryn (Chubut), Argentina
- Grupo de Ecología en Ambientes Costeros (GEAC), Puerto Madryn (Chubut), Argentina
| | - Gonzalo Bravo
- Instituto de Biología de Organismos Marinos (IBIOMAR-CONICET), Puerto Madryn (Chubut), Argentina
- Laboratorio de Reproducción y Biología Integrativa de Invertebrados Marinos (LARBIM), Puerto Madryn (Chubut), Argentina
- Fundación ProyectoSub, Puerto Madryn (Chubut), Argentina
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9
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Vlasenko AE, Magarlamov TY. Tetrodotoxin and Its Analogues in Cephalothrix cf. simula (Nemertea: Palaeonemertea) from the Sea of Japan (Peter the Great Gulf): Intrabody Distribution and Secretions. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12120745. [PMID: 33256088 PMCID: PMC7760002 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Some nemertean species from the genus Cephalothrix accumulate tetrodotoxin (TTX) in extremely high concentrations. The current study is the first to provide high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) data on tetrodotoxin and its analogues (TTXs) profile and concentration in different regions and organs of Cephalothrix cf. simula, and its secretions produced in response to stimulation. Different specimens of C. cf. simula possessed 7-11 analogues, including nine previously found in this species and two new for nemerteans-4,9-anhydro-8-epi-5,6,11-trideoxyTTX and 1-hydroxy-8-epi-5,6,11-trideoxyTTX. The study of the toxins' distribution in different regions and organs of nemerteans revealed the same qualitative composition of TTXs throughout the body but differences in the total concentration of the toxins. The total concentration of TTXs was highest in the anterior region of the body and decreased towards the posterior; the ratio of the analogues also differed between regions. The data obtained suggest a pathway of TTXs uptake in C. cf. simula and the role of toxins in the life activity of nemerteans.
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10
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Guardone L, Maneschi A, Meucci V, Gasperetti L, Nucera D, Armani A. A Global Retrospective Study on Human Cases of Tetrodotoxin (TTX) Poisoning after Seafood Consumption. FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2019.1669162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Guardone
- FishLab, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Andrea Maneschi
- FishLab, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Valentina Meucci
- FishLab, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Laura Gasperetti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Lazio e Toscana, Pisa, Italy
| | - Daniele Nucera
- Department of Agriculture, Forest and Food Science, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Andrea Armani
- FishLab, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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11
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Biessy L, Smith KF, Harwood DT, Boundy MJ, Hawes I, Wood SA. Spatial variability and depuration of tetrodotoxin in the bivalve Paphies australis from New Zealand. Toxicon X 2019; 2:100008. [PMID: 32550565 PMCID: PMC7286059 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2019.100008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Revised: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin responsible for many human intoxications globally. Despite its potency and widespread occurrence in taxonomically diverse species, the primary source of TTX remains uncertain. Paphies australis, an endemic clam found in New Zealand, has been found to contain TTX in several locations. However, it is unknown if this represents endogenous production or accumulation from an external source. To address this question, the concentrations of TTX in whole P. australis and dissected organs (siphons, foot, digestive gland and the ‘rest’) from thirteen sites around New Zealand were determined using liquid chromatography-tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry analysis (LC-MS/MS). Depuration rate of TTX was also investigated by harvesting and measuring concentrations in P. australis maintained in captivity on a toxin-free diet every three to 15 days for 150 days. The LC-MS/MS analyses of the spatial samples showed that TTX was present in P. australis from all regions tested, with significantly (p < 0.001) higher concentrations (15–50 μg kg−1) observed at lower latitudes of the North Island compared with trace levels (0.5–3 μg kg−1) in the South Island of New Zealand. Tetrodotoxin was detected in all the dissected organs but the siphons contained the highest concentrations of TTX at all sites analysed. A linear model of the depuration data identified a significant (p < 0.001) decline in total TTX concentrations in P. australis over the study period. The siphons maintained the highest amount of TTX across the entire depuration study. The digestive glands contained low concentrations at the start of the experiment, but this depurated rapidly and only traces remained after 21 days. These results provide evidence to suggest that P. australis does not produce TTX endogenously but obtains the neurotoxin from an exogenous source (e.g., diet) with the source more prevalent in warmer northern waters. The association of higher TTX concentrations in shellfish with warmer environments raises concerns that this toxin's distribution and abundance could become an increasing human health issue with global warming. TTX-containing Paphies australis were maintained in captivity for 150 days and significantly depurated the toxin. Thirteen populations of Paphies australis from around New Zealand were collected and tested for TTX. All populations tested contained TTX but a significant latitudinal gradient was observed. This study provides further evidence of an exogenous source of TTX in marine bivalves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Biessy
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand
- New Zealand Food Safety Science & Research Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
- Corresponding author. Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand.
| | - Kirsty F. Smith
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
| | - D. Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
- New Zealand Food Safety Science & Research Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
| | | | - Ian Hawes
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand
| | - Susanna A. Wood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
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12
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Yıldırım Y, Anderson MJ, Hansson B, Patel S, Millar CD, Rainey PB. Genetic structure of the grey side-gilled sea slug (Pleurobranchaea maculata) in coastal waters of New Zealand. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0202197. [PMID: 30114275 PMCID: PMC6095540 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0202197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2017] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Pleurobranchaea maculata is a rarely studied species of the Heterobranchia found throughout the south and western Pacific-and recently recorded in Argentina-whose population genetic structure is unknown. Interest in the species was sparked in New Zealand following a series of dog deaths caused by ingestions of slugs containing high levels of the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin. Here we describe the genetic structure and demographic history of P. maculata populations from five principle locations in New Zealand based on extensive analyses of 12 microsatellite loci and the COI and CytB regions of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Microsatellite data showed significant differentiation between northern and southern populations with population structure being associated with previously described regional variations in tetrodotoxin concentrations. However, mtDNA sequence data did not support such structure, revealing a star-shaped haplotype network with estimates of expansion time suggesting a population expansion in the Pleistocene era. Inclusion of publicly available mtDNA sequence sea slugs from Argentina did not alter the star-shaped network. We interpret our data as indicative of a single founding population that fragmented following geographical changes that brought about the present day north-south divide in New Zealand waters. Lack of evidence of cryptic species supports data indicating that differences in toxicity of individuals among regions are a consequence of differences in diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeşerin Yıldırım
- New Zealand Institute for Advanced Study, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Marti J. Anderson
- New Zealand Institute for Advanced Study, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
- Institute of Natural and Mathematical Sciences, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Bengt Hansson
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Selina Patel
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Craig D. Millar
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Paul B. Rainey
- New Zealand Institute for Advanced Study, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
- Department of Microbial Population Biology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
- Ecole Supérieure de Physique et de Chimie Industrielles de la Ville de Paris (ESPCI ParisTech), CNRS UMR 8231, PSL Research University, Paris, France
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13
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Seasonal Changes in the Tetrodotoxin Content of the Flatworm Planocera multitentaculata. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:md15030056. [PMID: 28245608 PMCID: PMC5367013 DOI: 10.3390/md15030056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2017] [Revised: 02/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin that acts specifically on voltage-gated sodium channels on excitable membranes of muscle and nerve tissues. The biosynthetic process for TTX is unclear, although marine bacteria are generally thought to be the primary producers. The marine flatworm Planocera multitentaculata is a known TTX-bearing organism, and is suspected to be a TTX supplier to pufferfish. In this study, flatworm specimens were collected from an intertidal zone in Hayama, Kanagawa, Japan, the TTX content of the flatworm was measured using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), and seasonal changes in TTX content were investigated. No significant difference in TTX concentration of the flatworm body was found between the spawning period and other periods. However, the TTX content in individual flatworms was significantly higher in the spawning period than at other times. The TTX content rose in association with an increase in the body weight of the flatworm.
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Farias NE, Wood SA, Obenat S, Schwindt E. Genetic barcoding confirms the presence of the neurotoxic sea slug Pleurobranchaea maculata in southwestern Atlantic coast. NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF ZOOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/03014223.2016.1159582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- NE Farias
- Laboratorio de Invertebrados, FCEyN, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Mar del Plata, Argentina
- Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), CONICET, Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - SA Wood
- Cawthron Institute, Nelson, New Zealand
- Environmental Research Institute, Waikato University, Hamilton, New Zealand
| | - S Obenat
- Laboratorio de Invertebrados, FCEyN, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Mar del Plata, Argentina
- Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), CONICET, Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - E Schwindt
- Grupo de Ecología en Ambientes Costeros (GEAC- IBIOMAR-CONICET), Puerto Madryn, Argentina
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15
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Abstract
This review covers the literature published in 2014 for marine natural products (MNPs), with 1116 citations (753 for the period January to December 2014) referring to compounds isolated from marine microorganisms and phytoplankton, green, brown and red algae, sponges, cnidarians, bryozoans, molluscs, tunicates, echinoderms, mangroves and other intertidal plants and microorganisms. The emphasis is on new compounds (1378 in 456 papers for 2014), together with the relevant biological activities, source organisms and country of origin. Reviews, biosynthetic studies, first syntheses, and syntheses that lead to the revision of structures or stereochemistries, have been included.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W Blunt
- Department of Chemistry, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.
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16
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Turner AD, Higgins C, Higman W, Hungerford J. Potential Threats Posed by Tetrodotoxins in UK Waters: Examination of Detection Methodology Used in Their Control. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:7357-76. [PMID: 26690455 PMCID: PMC4699243 DOI: 10.3390/md13127070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2015] [Revised: 11/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin is a neurotoxin responsible for many human fatalities, most commonly following the consumption of pufferfish. Whilst the source of the toxin has not been conclusively proven, it is thought to be associated with various species of marine bacteria. Whilst the toxins are well studied in fish and gastropods, in recent years, there have been a number of reports of tetrodotoxin occurring in bivalve shellfish, including those harvested from the UK and other parts of Europe. This paper reviews evidence concerning the prevalence of tetrodotoxins in the UK together with methodologies currently available for testing. Biological, biomolecular and chemical methods are reviewed, including recommendations for further work. With the recent development of quantitative chromatographic methods for these and other hydrophilic toxins, as well as the commercial availability of rapid testing kits, there are a number of options available to ensure consumers are protected against this threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Cowan Higgins
- Agri-food and Biosciences Institute (AFBI), Newforge Lane, Belfast BT9 5PX, UK.
| | - Wendy Higman
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - James Hungerford
- Pacific Laboratory Northwest, United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA), 22201 23rd Dr, S.E., Bothell, WA 98021, USA.
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17
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Jal S, Khora SS. An overview on the origin and production of tetrodotoxin, a potent neurotoxin. J Appl Microbiol 2015; 119:907-16. [PMID: 26178523 DOI: 10.1111/jam.12896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2015] [Revised: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 06/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a deadly neurotoxin which selectively inhibits Na(+) activation mechanism of nerve impulse, without affecting the permeability of K(+) ions. Because of this sodium channel blocking action, it is majorly being studied for biomedical applications. TTX is present in taxonomically diverse groups of animals inhabiting terrestrial, marine, fresh water and brackish water environments, still its origin remains unclear. The extensive study of the toxin has revealed a few possibilities of its origin. This review reports on the aspects of the origin of TTX, where the primary focus is on its exogenous origin. The significance of bacterial, cellular and environmental factors in its biogenesis and accumulation is also discussed. The possible facets for engineering the bacterial genomics to modulate the gene expression for TTX production are also outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Jal
- Medical Biotechnology Lab, School of Biosciences & Technology, VIT University, Vellore, India
| | - S S Khora
- Medical Biotechnology Lab, School of Biosciences & Technology, VIT University, Vellore, India
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18
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Panão I, Carrascosa C, Jaber JR, Raposo A. Puffer fish and its consumption: To eat or not to eat? FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2015.1075213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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19
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Ujević I, Vuletić N, Lušić J, Nazlić N, Kušpilić G. Bioaccumulation of trace metals in mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) from Mali Ston Bay during DSP toxicity episodes. Molecules 2015; 20:13031-40. [PMID: 26193253 PMCID: PMC6331999 DOI: 10.3390/molecules200713031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2015] [Revised: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The Croatian National Monitoring Program revealed the presence of Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) toxicity in Mediterranean blue mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) from breeding farms in southern Adriatic Sea through January to June 2011. The mouse bioassay tests (MBA; at the time the official method for DSP toxins) were accompanied by atypical symptomatology in the animals and this caused doubts about the assay results. Consequently, in parallel studies reported here, the concentration of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in soft tissue of DSP positive and negative mussels samples was determined. Cd, Cr, Zn and Ni show higher values in approximately 75% of the DSP positive samples, whereas for Pb and Cr the values were 26% and 34%, respectively. This trend was unchanged during the whole observation period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Ujević
- Laboratory of Plankton and Shellfish Toxicity, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište I. Meštrovića 63, P.O. Box 500, 21000 Split, Croatia.
| | - Nenad Vuletić
- Faculty of Sciences, University of Split, Teslina 12, 21000 Split, Croatia.
| | - Jelena Lušić
- Laboratory of Chemical Oceanography and Sedimentology of the Sea, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište I. Meštrovića 63, P.O. Box 500, 21000 Split, Croatia.
| | - Nikša Nazlić
- Laboratory of Plankton and Shellfish Toxicity, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište I. Meštrovića 63, P.O. Box 500, 21000 Split, Croatia.
| | - Grozdan Kušpilić
- Laboratory of Chemical Oceanography and Sedimentology of the Sea, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište I. Meštrovića 63, P.O. Box 500, 21000 Split, Croatia.
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20
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No evidence for a culturable bacterial tetrodotoxin producer in Pleurobranchaea maculata (Gastropoda: Pleurobranchidae) and Stylochoplana sp. (Platyhelminthes: Polycladida). Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:255-73. [PMID: 25635464 PMCID: PMC4344623 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7020255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin found in the tissues of many taxonomically diverse organisms. Its origin has been the topic of much debate, with suggestions including endogenous production, acquisition through diet, and symbiotic bacterial synthesis. Bacterial production of TTX has been reported in isolates from marine biota, but at lower than expected concentrations. In this study, 102 strains were isolated from Pleurobranchaea maculata (Opisthobranchia) and Stylochoplana sp. (Platyhelminthes). Tetrodotoxin production was tested utilizing a recently developed sensitive method to detect the C9 base of TTX via liquid chromatography—mass spectrometry. Bacterial strains were characterized by sequencing a region of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene. To account for the possibility that TTX is produced by a consortium of bacteria, a series of experiments using marine broth spiked with various P. maculata tissues were undertaken. Sixteen unique strains from P. maculata and one from Stylochoplana sp. were isolated, representing eight different genera; Pseudomonadales, Actinomycetales, Oceanospirillales, Thiotrichales, Rhodobacterales, Sphingomonadales, Bacillales, and Vibrionales. Molecular fingerprinting of bacterial communities from broth experiments showed little change over the first four days. No C9 base or TTX was detected in isolates or broth experiments (past day 0), suggesting a culturable microbial source of TTX in P. maculata and Stylochoplana sp. is unlikely.
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21
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Salvitti LR, Wood SA, Winsor L, Cary SC. Intracellular immunohistochemical detection of tetrodotoxin in Pleurobranchaea maculata (Gastropoda) and Stylochoplana sp. (Turbellaria). Mar Drugs 2015; 13:756-69. [PMID: 25636158 PMCID: PMC4344600 DOI: 10.3390/md13020756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2014] [Revised: 01/06/2015] [Accepted: 01/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX), is a potent neurotoxin targeting sodium channels that has been identified in multiple marine and terrestrial organisms. It was recently detected in the Opisthobranch Pleurobranchaea maculata and a Platyhelminthes Stylochoplana sp. from New Zealand. Knowledge on the distribution of TTX within these organisms is important to assist in elucidating the origin and ecological role of this toxin. Intracellular micro-distribution of TTX was investigated using a monoclonal antibody-based immunoenzymatic technique. Tetrodotoxin was strongly localized in neutral mucin cells and the basement membrane of the mantle, the oocytes and follicles of the gonad tissue, and in the digestive tissue of P. maculata. The ova and pharynx were the only two structures to contain TTX in Stylochoplana sp. Using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, TTX was identified in the larvae and eggs, but not the gelatinous egg cases of P. maculata. Tetrodotoxin was present in egg masses of Stylochoplana sp. These data suggest that TTX has a defensive function in adult P. maculata, who then invest this in their progeny for protection. Localization in the digestive tissue of P. maculata potentially indicates a dietary source of TTX. Stylochoplana sp. may use TTX in prey capture and for the protection of offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren R Salvitti
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
| | - Susanna A Wood
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
| | - Leigh Winsor
- College of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville QLD 4811, Australia.
| | - Stephen Craig Cary
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
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22
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Salvitti L, Wood SA, Taylor DI, McNabb P, Cary SC. First identification of tetrodotoxin (TTX) in the flatworm Stylochoplana sp.; a source of TTX for the sea slug Pleurobranchaea maculata. Toxicon 2014; 95:23-9. [PMID: 25557071 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2014] [Revised: 12/07/2014] [Accepted: 12/17/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
High concentrations of the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin (TTX) were detected by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) in the Platyhelminthes Stylochoplana sp. from Pilot Bay (Tauranga, New Zealand). This is the first detection of TTX in this genus. Concentrations were monitored from March to November (2013) and found to significantly decrease from a peak in July (avg. 551 mg kg(-1)) to November (avg. 140 mg kg(-1)). Stylochoplana sp. co-occurred with TTX-containing Pleurobranchaea maculata (Opisthobranchia). A Stylochoplana sp.-specific real-time PCR assay was developed targeting the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene to determine if P. maculata consumed Stylochoplana sp. Positive Stylochoplana sp. signals were obtained for 7 of 19 P. maculata tested. Mass calculations indicate Stylochoplana sp. could supply Pilot Bay P. maculata with the TTX required to account for the concentrations reported in previous studies (ca. 1.04 mg TTX per individual) based on an ingestion rate of one individual every 2-3 days throughout their lifetime. However, due to the lack of Stylochoplana sp. in areas with dense P. maculata populations, and high concentration (ca. 1400 mg kg(-1)) of TTX detected in some individuals, it is unlikely that Stylochoplana sp. represent the sole source of TTX in P. maculata.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Salvitti
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand
| | - Susanna A Wood
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; Cawthron Institute, Nelson 7042, New Zealand
| | | | - Paul McNabb
- Cawthron Institute, Nelson 7042, New Zealand
| | - S Craig Cary
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
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